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Yunnan

 

Tourism

Yunnan Province, due to its beautiful landscapes, mild climate and colorful ethnic minorities, is one of China's major tourist destinations. Tourist centres in Yunnan include:

• Dali, the historic center of the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms.
• Chuxiong, home of the Yi ethnic minority.
• Jinghong, capital of the Xishuangbanna Dai minority autonomous prefecture.
• Lijiang, a Naxi minority city. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.
• Shangri-La County, an ethnic Tibetan township.
• Shilin (Stone Forest), a series of karst outcrops east of Kunming.
• Yuanyang, a Hani minority settlement with vast rice-terraces.
• Xishuangbanna

 

Yunnan cuisine (滇菜 or 云南菜) is an amalgam of Han Chinese and Chinese minority cuisines. As the province with the largest number of ethnic minorities, Yunnan has a great variety of food, and it is difficult to make generalisations. Many Yunnanese dishes are quite spicy, and mushrooms feature prominently. Another important characteristic of Yunnan cuisine is the wide use of flowers as food.

 

Mi xian (米線) is a type of rice noodle from the Yunnan Province of China. It is made from ordinary non-glutinous rice. The processing of mi xian is unique, involving a ferment process.

 

Yunnan Baiyao is a hemostatic powdered medicine famous for being carried by the Vietcong to stop bleeding during the Vietnam War.

Yunnan

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Yunnan (雲南; literally "South of the Clouds") is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately 394,000 square kilometers (152,000 square miles). The capital of the province is Kunming (昆明). The province borders Myanmar (Burma), Laos, and Vietnam.

Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with high elevations in the northwest and low elevations in the southeast. Most of the population lives in the eastern part of the province. In the west, the relative height from mountain peaks to river valleys can be as much as 3,000 m. Yunnan is rich in natural resources and has the largest diversity of plant life in China. Yunnan's reserves of aluminium, lead, zinc and tin are the largest in China, and there are also major reserves of copper and nickel.

Yunnan became part of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) during 2nd century BC. It became the seat of a Tibeto-Burman speaking kingdom known as Nanzhao in the 8th century. Nanzhao was multi-ethnic, but the elite most likely spoke a language close to Yi and modern Burmese. The Mongols conquered the region in the 13th century, with local control exercised by warlords until the 1930s. As with other parts of China's southwest, Japanese occupation in the north during World War II forced a migration of Chinese into the region. Ethnic minorities in Yunnan account for about 34 percent of its total population. Major ethnic groups include Yi, Bai, Hani, Zhuang, Dai and Miao.

 

Borders

Bordering provinces are Tibet, Sichuan, Guizhou and Guangxi. Bordering countries are Vietnam (the main border crossing by road and rail is at Hekou–Lao Cai, the only land border crossing open to non-Chinese/non-Vietnamese), Laos (at Boten) and Burma (with the main border crossing at Ruili, the only land border open to non-Chinese/non-Burmese).

 

Climate

Yunnan has a generally mild climate with pleasant and fair weather because of the province's location on south-facing mountain slopes, receiving the influence of both the Pacific and Indian oceans, and although the growing period is long, there is little arable land. See Agriculture in Yunnan. January average temperatures range from 8°C to 17°C; July averages vary from 21°C to 27°C. Average annual rainfall ranges from 600 mm to 2,300 mm, with over half the rain occurring between June and August. The plateau region has moderate temperatures. The western canyon region is hot and humid at the valley bottoms, but there are freezing winds at the mountaintops.

 

Languages

Most dialects of the Chinese language spoken in Yunnan belong to the southwestern subdivision of the Mandarin group, and are therefore very similar to the dialects of neighbouring Sichuan and Guizhou provinces. In addition to the local dialects, most people also speak Standard Chinese (Putonghua, commonly called "Mandarin"), which is used in the media, by the government, and as the language of instruction in education.

Yunnan's ethnic diversity is reflected in its linguistic diversity. Languages spoken in Yunnan include Tibeto-Burman languages such as Bai, Yi, Tibetan, Hani, Jingpo, Lisu, Lahu, Naxi; Tai languages like Zhuang, Bouyei, Dong, Shui, Tai Lü and Tai Nüa or northern Lao dialect; as well as Hmong-Mien languages.

The Naxi, in particular, use the Dongba script, which is the only pictographic writing system in use in the world today. The Dongba script was mainly used to provide the Dongba priests with instructions on how to carry out their rituals: today the Dongba script features more as a tourist attraction. The most famous western Dongba scholar was Joseph Rock.

 

Economy

Yunnan is one of China's relatively undeveloped provinces with more poverty-stricken counties than the other provinces. .

Yunnan lags behind the east coast of China in relation to socio-economic development. However, because of its geographic location the province has comparative advantages in regional and border trade with countries in southeast Asia. The Lancang River (upper reaches of Mekong River) is the waterway to southeast Asia.

The main challenge that Yunnan faces is its lack of major development. Its low productivity and competitiveness restrict the rapid development of the province. The province also faces great challenges in social issues such as environmental protection, poverty elimination, illegal migration, drug trafficking and HIV/AIDS.

 

 

 

 

Southwest China

Southwest China (西南) is a region of China defined by governmental bureaus that includes the municipality of Chongqing; provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou; and the Tibet Autonomous Region.

 

 

Ethnicity of Yunnan

Yunnan is noted for a very high level of ethnic diversity. It has the highest number of ethnic groups among all provinces and autonomous regions in China. Among the country's fifty-six recognised ethnic groups, twenty-five are found in Yunnan. Some 38% of the province's population are members of minorities, including the Yi, Bai, Hani, Tai, Dai, Miao, Lisu, Hui, Lahu, Va, Nakhi, Yao, Tibetan, Jingpo, Blang, Pumi, Nu, Achang, Jinuo, Mongolian, Derung, Manchu, Shui, and Buyei. Several other groups are represented, but they live neither in compact settlements nor do they reach the required threshold of five thousand to be awarded the official status of being present in the province. Some groups, such as the Mosuo, who are officially recognised as part of the Naxi, have in the past claimed official status as a national minority, and are now recognised with the status of Mosuo people.

Ethnic groups are widely distributed in the province. Some twenty-five minorities live in compact communities, each of which has a population of more than five thousand. Ten ethnic minorities living in border areas and river valleys include the Hui, Manchu (the Manchu, remnants of the Qing administration, do not live in compact settlements and are in all respects indistinguishable from the Han), Bai, Naxi, Mongolian, Zhuang, Dai, Achang, Buyei and Shui, with a combined population of 4.5 million; those in low mountainous areas are the Hani, Yao, Lahu, Va, Jingpo, Blang and Jino, with a combined population of 5 million; and those in high mountainous areas are Miao, Lisu, Tibetan, Pumi and Derung, with a total population of four million.

An oft-repeated proverb tells the story of three brothers who were born speaking different languages: Tibetan, Naxi, and Bai. Each settled in different areas of Yunnan and Tibet, respectively, the high area, the middle area, and the low area.

Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China by Stevan Harrell

 

 

 

Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers by Stevan Harrell

 

 

 

 

Yi

photo by yi.peoples.org

The Yi people (彝族) are a modern ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Numbering 8 million, they are the seventh largest of the 55 minor ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. . They live primarily in rural areas of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, usually in mountainous regions.  

The Yi speak Yi, a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese. The Chinese government has grouped the Nisu, Nasu, Sani, Axi, Lolopo, Pu, and tens of dozens of other peoples speaking more than six completely distinct languages with dozens of dialects into a single group called the Yi. Because of this, a Yi from one area may not be able to communicate with a Yi from another area; and may or may not even agree that they both are Yi.

Most Yi are farmers; herders of cattle, sheep and goats; and nomadic hunters. Only about one third of the Yi are literate. Most have no written language.

Of the over 8 million Yi people, over 4.5 million live in Yunnan Province, 2.5 million live in southern Sichuan Province, and 1 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all the Yi live in mountainous areas, often carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.

Legend has it that the Yi are descended from the ancient Qiang people of today's Western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from Southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today.

The Yi language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman Language Group of the Sino-Tibetan Language Family, and the Yis speak six dialects. Many Yis in Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi know the Han (standard Chinese or Mandarin) language. The Yis used to have a syllabic script called the old Yi language, which was formed in the 13th century. It is estimated that the extant old Yi script has about 10,000 words, of which 1,000 are words of everyday use. A number of works of history, literature and medicine as well as genealogies of the ruling families written in the old Yi script are still seen in most Yi areas. Many stone tablets and steles carved in the old Yi script remain intact. Since the old Yi language is not consistent in word form and pronunciation, it was reformed after liberation for use in books and newspapers.

Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China by Stevan Harrell

 

 

 

 

 

Lisu

Photo by Steve Evans

The Lisu people (傈僳族ู่) are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group who inhabit the mountainous regions of Burma (Myanmar), Southwest China, Thailand, and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh.

About 730,000 live in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing and Dehong prefectures in Yunnan Province, China. The Lisu form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. In Burma, the Lisu are known as one of the seven Kachin minority groups and an estimated population of 350,000 Lisu live in Kachin and Shan State in Burma. Approximately 55,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit the remote country areas

History: Lisu history is passed from one generation to the next in the form of songs. Today, this song is so long that it can take a whole night to sing.

Origins: The Lisu are believed to originate from eastern Tibet. Research done by Lisu scholars indicates that they moved to northwestern Yunnan. They inhabited a region across Baoshan and the Tengchong plain for thousands of years. The Lisu, Lahu, Akha and Kachin languages are Tibetan-Burman languages, distantly related to Burmese and Tibetan. After the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty, around 1140-1644 A.D. the eastern and Southern Lisu language and culture were greatly influenced by Han culture of China. Taiping village in Yinjiang, Yunnan, China, was first established by Lu Shi Lisu people about 1000 years ago. In the mid-19th century, Lisu peoples in Yinjiang began moving into Momeik, Burma, a population of Southern Lisu moved into Mogok, north-eastern Burma, and then in the late 19th century, moved into northern Thailand.

Migration into Arunachal Pradesh: Christian Lisu in Arunachal Pradesh, India are believed to have migrated from the Patkai Hills. Part of the population was believed to have migrated from China to Burma, fleeing the Communists, and then were ordered to leave Burma by the government at the time; this group also settled in Arunachal Pradesh. In Arunachal Pradesh, they are primarily concentrated in Changlang District and Tirap district.

Language: Linguistically, the Lisu belong to the Yi or Ngwi branch of the Sino-Tibetan family.

There are two scripts in use and the Chinese Department of Minorities publishes literature in both. The oldest and most widely used one is the Fraser alphabet developed about 1920 by James O. Fraser and the Karen evangelist Ba Taw. The second script was developed by the Chinese government and is based on pinyin.

Fraser's script for the Lisu language was used to prepare the first published works in Lisu which were a catechism, portions of Scripture, and eventually, with much help from his colleagues, a complete New Testament in 1936. In 1992, the Chinese government officially recognized the Fraser alphabet as the official script of the Lisu language.

Only a small portion of Lisu are actually able to read or write the script, with most learning to read and write the local language (Chinese, Thai, Burmese) through primary education.

 

 

Bai

The Bai (白族) are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They numbered 1,858,063 as of 2000.

The Bai People hold the white colour in high esteem and call themselves "Baizi", "Baini" or "Baihuo", which means white people. In 1956, of their own will they were named the Bai Nationality by Chinese Authorities.

Location: Bai people live mostly in the provinces of Yunnan (Dali area), and in neighboring Guizhou (Bijie area) and Hunan (Sangzhi area) provinces. Of the 2 million Bai people, eighty percent live in concentrated communities in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province.

Language: An estimated 1,240,000 (as of 2003) of the Bai speak the Bai language in all its varieties. The tongue is either a member of the Sinitic branch or the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family or possibly part of an independent branch of this family.

Cormorant Fishing: Cormorant fishing is a way of using cormorant birds for fishing and is practiced among the Bai fishermen.

 

 

Nakhi

The Nakhi (納西族) are an ethnic group inhabiting the foothills of the Himalayas in the northwestern part of Yunnan Province, as well as the southwestern part of Sichuan Province in China.

The Nakhi are thought to have come originally from Tibet and, until recently, maintained overland trading links with Lhasa and India. They were brought to the attention of the world by two men: the American botanist Joseph Rock and the Russian Taoist doctor Peter Goullart, both of whom lived in Lijiang and travelled throughout the area during the early 20th century. Peter Goullart's book Forgotten Kingdom describes the life and beliefs of the Nakhi and neighbouring peoples, while Joseph Rock's legacy includes diaries, maps, and photographs of the region.

The Nakhi form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. The official Chinese government classification classes the Mosuo as part of the Nakhi people. However, despite similar origins and very striking resemblances from a linguistic point of view, the two groups are now culturally distinct, the Nakhi more influenced by Han Chinese culture, the Mosuo more influenced by Tibetan culture.

The Naxi language, or actually languages (also known as Nakhi, Nasi, Lomi, Moso, or Mo-su) is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by some 310,000 people concentrated in the Lijiang City Yulong Naxi Autonomous County (Yǜlóng Nàxīzú Zìzhìxiàn 玉龍納西族自治縣) of the province of Yunnan.

History: The Nakhi are believed to be the descendants of the nomadic Qiang, an ethnic group inhabiting the Tibetan plateau since ancient times. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, the Nakhi were known as the Mosha-yi, or the Moxie-yi. Only after communist rule in China did they call themselves Nakhi, which means "people who worship the black things of the nation".

Frequently harassed by neighbouring tribes, the proto-Nakhi then moved to head of the Nujiang River from the Jinsha and then to the Along River in the present-day province of Sichuan in western China. After being pushed south by other conquering tribes, the Nakhi finally settled in Baisha and Lijiang by 3 AD.

The Nakhi split into three groups while their ancestors were still in Baisha. The ones who remained are known as the Nakhi, those in Dali are known as Bai, and those living around the Lugu Lake are called the Mosuo. Even today, the three groups share similar customs.

Forgotten Kingdom ( Among the Nakhis of Likiang ) by Peter Goullart

 

 

 

 

Hani

The Hani people (哈尼族) are an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They also form one of the 54 officially recognized ethnic groups of Vietnam. There are 12,500 Hanis living in the Lai Chau and Lao Cai provinces of Vietnam.

Over ninety percent of the Hani live in the southwestern Chinese province of Yunnan, scattered across the Ailao Mountains between the Mekong River and the Red River (Yuanjiang).

The origins of the Hani are not precisely known, though their ancestors, the ancient Qiang tribe, are believed to have migrated southward from the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau prior to the third century AD.

The Hani oral traditions state that they are descended from the Yi people, and that they split off as a separate tribe fifty generations ago. One of their oral traditions is the recital of the names of Hani ancestors from the first Hani family down to oneself.

Language: The Hani language spoken by many of the Hani is of the Yi branch of the Tibeto-Burman linguistic family. Oral tradition tells of an ancient written script, tradition says it was lost on the migration from Sichuan. They now use a romanization of the Luchun dialect as a written script.

 

 

Lahu

Photo by Steve Evans

The Lahu (拉祜族) are an ethnic group of Southeast Asia and China.

They are of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, where about 450,000 live in Yunnan province. An estimated 150,000 live in Burma. In Thailand, Lahu are one of the six main hill tribes, and their population is estimated at around 100,000. The Tai often refer to them by the exonym "Mussur", meaning hunter. About 10,000 live in Laos. They are one of 54 ethnic groups in Vietnam, where about 1,500 live in Lai Chau province.

Language: The Lahu language is part of the Loloish branch of the Lolo-Burmese subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman family (itself a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family). Like most of its relatives, it is a heavily isolating language. The language spoken by the Lahu Shi is notably divergent from that spoken by the other groups. In Thailand, Lahu Na often serves as a lingua franca among the various hill tribes.

 

 

Miao

The Miao (苗族) are a linguistically and culturally related group of people recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China as one of the 55 official minority groups. Miao is a Chinese term and does not reflect the self-designations of the component sub-groups, which include (with some variant spellings) Hmong/Mong, Hmu, A Hmao,and Kho (Qho) Xiong. The Miao live primarily in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. Some members of the Miao sub-groups, most notably Hmong/Mong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand).

Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples often with the connotation of "barbarian." This former meaning has not kept members of the modern nationality from self-identifying as Miao.

Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classified them according to the most characteristic colour of the women's clothes. The list below contains the self-designations, the colour designations and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China:

• Ghao Xong; Red Miao; west Hunan.
• Hmu, Gha Ne (Ka Nao); Black Miao; southeast Guizhou.
• A Hmao; Big Flowery Miao; northwest Guizhou and northeast Yunnan.
• Hmong, White Miao, Mong, Green (Blue) Miao, Small Flowery Miao; south Sichuan, west Guizhou and south Yunnan.

According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of Miao sub-groups live in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar due to migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam wars between 1949 and 1975, many Hmong/Mong people now live in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia. Altogether there are approximately 8 million speakers of Miao languages. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong/Mong-Mien (Miao-Yao) language family.

Archaeological Discoveries: Many Miao scholars believe the Dawenkou Culture to be Miao. They cite the pottery designs found in the tombs as examples. The designs are very similar to present day Miao embroideries. Combine this with the presence of Miao in Shangdong suggests the Miao's origin is not the south but the mouth of the Yellow River. It would also support the Miao's claim to the Shang Dynasty since Shangdong is part of Shang.

Lady Dai found in Tomb no. 1 at Mawangdui is believed by many Miao as a Miao woman. They cite the T-shaped banners draped over her coffin as an example of Miao burial practices and beliefs. This dispel the belief that the sinicization of the Miao was by force or even sinicized during the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang is a general under Xiang Yu meaning he commanded Miao troops and they are his base of power. When the dispute with Xiang Yu broke out Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo and Fan Kuai saved Liu Bang's life. This meant Liu Bang's support among the Miao was strong. The Han-Chu contention was not about a struggle between two groups of people but between two individuals. This explains why Miao beliefs and culture flourished during the Western Han. It would also mean that the Han nationality began when the Miao and Huaxia came together as one. The present day Miao may be the remnant of those who fled when Qin conquered Chu. They left before peace came and never returned. It would explain why Chu is acknowledged by the Miao as a Miao Kingdom but not Han given Liu Bang's base of power was former Chu in the South.

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics by Louisa Schein

 

 

 

Miao Textiles from China (Fabric Folios) by Gina Corrigan

 

 

 

 

Sui

Photo from China Daily

The Sui people (水族) are an ethnic group living in the Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan areas of southwestern China. They are counted as one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

It is believed that the Shui are descended from the Luo-Yue that inhabited the southeast coast of China before the Han dynasty. Their name of Shui, which means "water", was adopted during the Ming dynasty.

The Shui are organized around family clans. Their houses usually have one story, although some have two stories. In the latter, the second floor is used for the living quarters whereas the first floor is used primarily as a stable and food storage. If a woman is widowed, she covers her hair with a fabric of white color for three years. The Shui possess a lunar calendar that is initiated in the ninth lunar month. Their funeral services are elaborate and long ceremonies where animal sacrifices are carried out in honor of the dead.

The Shui are mainly polytheists and practice ancestor worship as well. Shamans were traditionally hired to carry out prayers and sacrifices in the houses of those that were sick or close to death.

Language: The Shui speak the Sui language of the Kradai family. Their language has eight tones, fewer than the Dong language which has 13. However, it does have a large number of consonants with forty-two.

 

 

Dai

Photo from paulnoll.com

The Dai peoples of China (傣族) is the officially recognized name of several ethnic groups living in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture and the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (both in southern Yunnan, China), but by extension can apply to groups in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and Burma when Dai is used to mean specifically Tai Lue, Chinese Shan or even Tai in general.

Exodus: The original areas of the Tai Lue included both sides of the Mekong River in the Sipsongpanna. According to the Tai Lue, there were five city-states on the east bank and six on the west, which with Chiang Rung formed twelve rice field divisions with all twelve having another 32 small provinces.

Some portions of these Tai Lue either voluntarily moved or were forcibly herded from these city-states around one to two hundred years ago, arriving in countries of present-day Burma, Laos and Thailand.

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Genetic Studies

 

* The Emerging Limbs and Twigs of the East Asian mtDNA Tree by Toomas Kivisild, et al.

Phylogenetic Reconstruction and Geographic Distribution of Haplogroup M7

 

Phylogeography of Haplogroup A

 

 

* Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122 by Hong Shi, et al.

Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in the East Asian Populations Studied

 

The Frequency Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in East Asian and Other Continental Populations

 

The Map of Multidimensional Scaling Analysis Based on the O3-M122 SNP Haplotype Distribution

 

 

* Polymorphism of 17 Y-STR Loci in Shanxi Han Population and Genetic Relationship with 13 Populations by MS Shi, et al.

14 个群体NJ 系统发生树

 

14 个群体聚类分析图

 

 

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

(Hubei, Yunnan, Zhejiang)

 

 

* Genetic Relationship of Populations in China by J. Y. Chu, et al.

Chinese Populations Sampled in the Current Study

 

Phylogenies Constructed by Using the Neighbor-joining Method Based on 30 Microsatellites

 

Phylogenies Constructed by Using the Neighbor-joining Method Based on 15 Microsatellites

(Japanese, Han-Northern, Manchu, Korean, Han-Yunnan)

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup Distribution in Chaoshanese with and without Myopia by Qin Wang, et al.

Principal Component Map of Mmitochondrial DNA Variation

 

 

* Genetic Diversity of Two Haploid Markers in the Udegey Population from Southeastern Siberia by HJ Jin, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on FST Distances of Y-chromosome Haplogroups in 12 East Asian Populations

 

Median-joining Network for Eurasian Populations Based on 12 Binary Y Chromosome Markers

 

 

* Polymorphic Distribution of Y-chromosome Haplotype and Mitochondrial DNA in the Bouyei People in China by Li Yong-nian, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in China and World Populations

 

 

* A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

 

 

* Genetic History of Southeast Asian Populations as Revealed by Ancient and Modern Human Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by P. Lertrit, et al.

Populations Selected for Genetic Comparison

 

Unrooted NJ Tree of 22 Selected Populations Based on Net Genetic Distances

 

PC Map of 22 Selected Populations Based on Net Genetic Distances

 

Haplogroup Frequencies

 

 

* The Origin of Mosuo People as Revealed by mtDNA and Y Cchromosome Variation by Wen Bo, et al.

Abstract: The Mosuo, living in the Lugu Lake area in northwest Yunnan Province, China, is the only matriarchal population in China. The Mosuo was officially identified as Naxi nationality although its relationship with Naxi remains controversial. We studied the genetic relationship between the Mosuo and five other ethnic groups currently residing in northwest Yunnan, i.e. Naxi, Tibetan, Bai, Yi and Pumi, by typing the genetic variations in mtDNA HVS1 and 21 Y chromosome markers (13 SNPs & 8 STR markers). We showed that the maternal lineages of the Mosuo bear the strongest resemblance with those found in Naxi while its paternal lineages are more similar to those that are prevalent in Yunnan Tibetan. The marked difference between paternal and maternal lineages may be attributable to the genetic history, matriarchal structure, and visiting
marriage.

 

 

* Characteristics of Mongoloid and Neighboring Populations Based on the Genetic Markers of Human Immunoglobulins by H. Matsumoto

Abstract: Since the discovery in 1966 of the Gm ab3st gene, which characterizes Mongoloid populations, the distribution of allotypes of immunoglobulins (Gm) among Mongoloid populations scattered from Southeast Asia through East Asia to South America has been investigated, and the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Mongoloid populations can be characterized by four Gm haplotypes, Gm ag, axg, ab3st, and afb1b3, and can be divided into two groups based on the analysis of genetic distances utilizing Gm haplotype frequency distributions: the first is a southern group characterized by a remarkably high frequency of Gm afb1b3 and a low frequency of Gm ag, and the second, a northern group characterized by a high frequency of both Gm ag and Gm ab3st but an extremely low frequency of Gm afb1b3. 2. Populations in China, mainly Han but including minority nationalities, show remarkable heterogeneity of Gm allotypes from north to south and contrast sharply to Korean and Japanese populations, which are considerably more homogenous with respect to these genetic markers. The center of dispersion of the Gm afb1b3 gene characterizing southern Mongoloids has been identified as the Guangxi and Yunnan area in the southwest of China. 3. The Gm ab3st gene, which is found with its the highest incidence among the northern Baikal Buriats, flows in all directions. However, this gene shows a precipitous drop from mainland China to Taiwan and Southeast Asia and from North to South America, although it is still found in high frequency among Eskimos, Koryaks, Yakuts, Tibetans, Olunchuns, Tungus, Koreans, Japanese, and Ainus. On the other hand, the gene was introduced into Huis, Uyghurs, Indians, Iranians, and spread as far as to include Hungarians and Sardinians in Italy. On the basis of these results, it is concluded that the Japanese race belongs to northern Mongoloids and that the origin of the Japanese race was in Siberia, and most likely in the Baikal area of the Soviet Union.

 

 

* Characteristics of the β-Globin Gene Cluster Haplotypes of Three Han Chinese Populations at Beijing, Xi’an, and Kunming as Compared with Those of Other Asian Populations by Koji Shimizu, et al.

Abstract: Haplotype frequencies of the β-globin gene cluster of Han Chinese at Beijing, Xi’an, and Kunming were estimated, and their mutual genetic relationships were examined and compared to those of Buryats, Khalkhs, Evenkis, Oroqens, Koreans, and Colombian Amerindians. A major 5′ subhaplotype (5′ to the δ-globin gene), a major 3′ subhaplotype (in and 3′ to the β-globin gene), and a major haplotype (combination of 5′ and 3′ subhaplotypes) are represented as + − − − −, − +, and + − − − − − +, respectively, and found in all three Han Chinese. A rare 5′ subhaplotype, − − − − −, which is one of the possible ancestral types, was found only in Han Chinese at Kunming at low frequency (0.013), and a rare 3′ subhaplotype, − −, was also observed in all three Han Chinese at low frequencies (0.009–0.014). The present haplotype frequency study suggested that the highest genetic affinity was found between Han Chinese at Beijing and those at Xi’an; the next highest was between Han Chinese at Beijing and Koreans, followed by that between Han Chinese at Beijing and Khalkhs, then that between Han Chinese at Xi’an and those at Kunming or Khalkhs, and finally that between Han Chinese at Beijing and those at Kunming. A genetic boundary between northern and southern Han Chinese was not evident in the present study.

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Population Analyzed

 

Two-dimensional PC Plot of mtDNA of Han Populations

 

PC Map of Y Chromosome of Han Chinese

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

 

 

* HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-DRB1 Alleles and Haplotypes in Naxi and Han Populations in Southwestern China (Yunnan province) by L. Shi, et al.

Abstract: The frequencies of the human leukocyte antigen alleles HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-DRB1 and the A-B-DRB1, A-B, and B-DRB1 haplotypes were studied in Naxi and Yunnan Han populations using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-sequence-specific amplification for alleles A and B and a PCR-microtiter plate hybridization method for the DRB1 allele. A total of 8 A, 19 B, and 30 DRB1 alleles were found in the Naxi population, and 15 A, 21 B, and 36 DRB1 alleles were found in Yunnan Han population. The common A-B-DRB1 haplotypes in the Naxi population were A*24-B*15-DRB1*1202, A*11-B*15-DRB1*0405, A*11-B*15-DRB1*1202, A*11-B*38-DRB1*08032, and A*11-B*55-DRB1*0405; the common A-B haplotypes were A*11-B*15, A*11-B*38, and A*24-B*15; and the common B-DRB1 haplotypes were B*15-DRB1*1202, B*38-DRB1*08032, and B*48-DRB1*1201. In the Yunnan Han population, the common A-B-DRB1 haplotypes were A*24-B*15-DRB1*1501, A*24-B*46-DRB1*08032, and A*24-B*15-DRB1*1201; the common A-B haplotypes were A*24-B*15, A*24-B*46, and A*34-B*46; and the common B-DRB1 haplotypes were B*15-DRB1*1501, B*46-DRB1*09012, and B*46-DRB1*1401. Phylogenetic tree and principal component analyzes based on HLA-A, HLA-B, and DRB1 allele frequencies suggested that the Naxi ethnic group belongs to the southern Chinese groups, while the Yunnan Han population is a characteristic population located intermediate between northern and southern Chinese groups, although they live in the southwest of China.

 

 

* Distribution of HLA-A, -B, -Cw, and -DRB1 Alleles and Haplotypes in an Isolated Han Population in Southwest China by Y. Yao, et al.

Abstract: In this study, polymorphisms of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I (A, B, and Cw) and class II (DRB1) loci were analyzed in an isolated Han population living in Fengyandong in the Yunnan province of Southwest China (FYDH) using a high-resolution polymerase chain reaction-Luminex typing method. A total of 13 A, 26 B, 15 Cw, and 23 DRB1 alleles of HLA were found in FYDH. The frequencies of A*1101, A*0207, A*2402, B*4601, B*1502, Cw*0102, Cw*0801, DRB1*0901, and DRB1*1202 were >10%. The following haplotypes were common with frequencies >5%: three A-B, four Cw-B, two B-DRB1, two A-B-DRB1, three A-B-Cw, two B-Cw-DRB1, and two A-B-Cw-DRB1 phylogenetic tree and multidimensional scaling analysis based on HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 allele frequencies of 18 Han populations suggested that FYDH was an isolated Han population, but the analytic result also provided a suggestion that FYDH was genetically related to Chinese Southern Han. According to the characteristics of the HLA allele and haplotype distributions and significantly reduced allelic and haplotypic diversity in FYDH, we deduced that genetic drift and/or selection and subsequent geographic isolation had influenced the distribution characteristics of the HLA gene in FYDH. In addition, significantly reduced allelic and haplotypic diversity in FYDH makes it an ideal homogenous population and very useful model for future investigations of issues related to immunogenetic diseases in the Han population.

 

 

* Polymorphism of DYS287 on Y Chromosome in 28 Ethnic Populations of China by Y. Chen, et al.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the polymorphism of DYS287 among 28 ethnic populations in 9 provinces of China. METHOD: YAP element was detected by Touchdown PCR amplification and 2% agarose gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: YAP+ frequencies in these ethnic populations were as follows: Zang 36.7%, Tu 23.8%, Yi 18.4%, Pumi 11.3%, Tajik 7.4%, Bai 6.7%, Jino 5.1%, Shandong Han 4%, Mulao 2.7%, and Maonan 1.3%. The rest ethnic populations in our study, including Gansu Han, Yunnan Han, Zhuangzu, Daizu, Lizu, Nuzu, Lisu, Naxi, Lahu, Dulong, Hani, Shezu, Weiwuer, Sala, Kerkizi, Dongxiang, Vazu, and Korea didn't carry YAP + element. CONCLUSIONS: Zangzu, Tuzu, Yizu, Pumi, Jino, and Baizu, which belong to Sino-Tibetan language family (Tibeto-Burman Languages), carry a high YAP + frequency. Sala, Tuzu, and Tajik, regarded as Central Asia by origin in history and linguistics, also have a high YAP + frequency. Mulao and Maonan, which origin from "Baiyue" ancient ethnic groups, also have a considerable YAP + frequency.

 

 

* The Geographic Polymorphisms of Y Chromosome at YAP Locus Among 25 Ethnic groups in Yunnan, China by H. Shi, et al.

Abstract: The genetic polymorphisms of Y chromosome at YAP locus in 25 ethnic groups (33 populations) of China were analyzed in a total of 1294 samples. The average YAP+ frequency of the 33 populations was 9.2%, coinciding with published data of Chinese populations. Primi has the highest YAP+ frequency (72.3%), which is also the highest YAP+ among all the eastern Asian populations studied. The YAP+ occurred in 17 populations studied including Tibetan (36.0%), Naxi (37.5% and 25.5%), Zhuang (21.3%), Jingpo (12.5%), Miao (11.8%), Dai (11.4%, 10.0%, 3.3% and 2.0%), Yi (8.0%), Bai of Yunnan (6.7% and 6.0%), Mongol of Inner Mongolia (4.3%), Tujia of Hunan (2.6%), Yao (2.2%) and Nu (1.8%). The other 15 populations are YAP-including Lahu (2 populations), Hani, Achang, Drung, Lisu, Sui, Bouyei, Va, Bulang, Deang, Man and Hui and Mongol of Yunnan and Bai of Hunan. The YAP+ frequencies varied among the different ethnic groups studied, and even different among the same ethnic group living in different geographic locations. Using the genetic information, combined with the knowledge of ethnology, history and archaeology, the origin and prehistoric migrations of the ethnic groups in China, especially in Yunnan Province were discussed.

 

 

Haplogroup DE (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup DE is defined by the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutations, or UEPs, M1(YAP), M145(P205), M203, P144, P153, P165, P167, P183.

Haplogroup DE is often referred to by the most well-known unique event polymorphism (UEP) which defines it, the Y-chromosome Alu Polymorphism (YAP). The YAP mutation was caused when a strand of DNA called Alu, which copies itself, inserted a copy into the Y chromosome. A Y chromosome that has the YAP mutation is called YAP-positive (YAP+), and a Y chromosome that does not have the YAP mutation is labeled YAP-negative (YAP-).

Haplogroup DE is an estimated 65,000 years old.

Distribution: The majority of DE male lines can be categorized as being in either Haplogroup D (Y-DNA), which likely originated in Asia, the only place where it has been found,vor haplogroup E, which is believed to have originated in East Africa or the Near East. The remainder are said to be in the paragroup DE*, confirmed cases of which are extremely rare.

In a study of over 8000 men worldwide including 1247 Nigerians, Haplogroup DE* was observed in only 5 Nigerian males (5/1247). However, the study's authors caution that "the apparently paraphyletic status of this haplogroup, and hence the conclusions of nested cladistic analysis, are also likely to be illusory" and that "the only genealogically meaningful definition of the age of a clade is the time to its most recent common ancestor, but only if DE* is paraphyletic does it also become automatically older than D or E in this sense." More recently, one example of DE* was found amongst the Nalu in Guinea Bissau (1/17). The DE* sequence of this individual differs by one mutation from the DE* sequence of the Nigerian individuals. This indicates common ancestry, though the phylogenetic relationship between the two lineages was not determined in this particular study. A 2008 study detected DE* in two individuals from Tibet (2/594).

Haplogroup DE is found in Africa (Haplogroups E and DE*) and East Asia (Haplogroups D and DE*) but is largely absent in between these two regions. The presence of DE across widely separated regions has confounded investigators trying to reconstruct the migration of humans from Africa to Asia. At some time, there was an extinction of DE lineages in West, South and Central Asia. Autochthonous DE lineages are absent in India, an important region in the dispersal of humans in Asia. However DE lineages have been detected in relict populations of the Andaman Islands. Underhill et al. 2007, suggest the possibility that deleterious mutations in some DE carriers may explain the extinction of DE lineages in India.

Tree

This phylogenetic tree of para-haplogroup DE is based on the YCC 2008 tree and subsequent published research.

• DE (M1/YAP, M145 [P205], M203, P144, P153, P165, P167, P183)
  • D (M174, (021355))
  • E (SRY4064, M96, P29, P150, P152, P154, P155, P156, P162)

 

 

* The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers by Han-Jun Jin, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on FST Distances of Y Chromosome Haplogroups

(Han Yunnan clusters with Han Yili, Korean, Vietnamese)

 

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on FST Distances of mtDNA Haplogroups

(Han Yunnan)

 

 

* Polymorphism of HLA-DRB1 in Han Population in Yunnan and Comparison with 9 Han Populations by SB Xu, et al.

Abstract: 129 samples of Han population in Yunnan province were detected by polymerase chain reaction and microtitre plate hybridization (PCR-MPH). The samples of DR*15 subgroup being detected by PCR-MPH were further analyzed by Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism (SSCP). By first polymerase chain reaction and microtitre plate hybridization (PCR-MPH), all of the 129 samples were divided into the following subgroups, viz. DR*01, DR*03 ,DR*04, DR*0701, DR*08, DR*09012, DR*1001, DR*11, DR*12, DR*13, DR*14, DR*15, DR*1602 and DR*1604. The samples of DR*04, DR*08/12, DR*03/11/13/14 were further detected by second PCR-MPH and the ones of DR*15 by SSCP. 36 kinds of alleles on HLA-DRB1 were detected in these samples. Among them, DRB1*1501(0.1240), DRB1*09012(0.0969), DRB1*08032(0.0930), DRB1*1202(0.0891), DRB1*1201(0.0814), DRB1 *1401(0.0775), DRB1 *0701(0.0620),are the most frequent. The chi(2) test of HLA-DRB1 alleles was done between Yunnan Han and the other 9 Han populations. In detail, comparing with Yunnan Han on the chi(2) test, the chi(2) values of few alleles in the few Han populations was more than 10, they were Xian Han (DR8,chi(2)=13.9712), Shanghai Han (DR4,chi(2)=10.1632), Guangdong Han (DR9,chi(2)=12.6121) and Nanjing Han (DR4,chi(2)=10.5796). Comparing with 9 Han populations, the genetic distance between Yunnan Han and Liaoning Han was the nearest 0.0541), Guangdong Han was the farthest (0.1851). In the 9 Han populations, the genetic distance between Shanghai Han and Nanjing Han was the nearest (0.0122), and the one between Tianjin Han and Shanxi Han was also nearer (0.0219). Based on above analysis, the conclusion may be deduced that the resource of Yunnan Han may be close to Liaoning Han and it was not a typical southern Han population though Yunnan Han are resident in the South. Some gene flow may be exit between Yunnan Han and the local minorities and made Yunnan Han become a special population.

 

 

* Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

Abstract: To characterize the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in Han Chinese from several provinces of China, we have sequenced the two hypervariable segments of the control region and the segment spanning nucleotide positions 10171–10659 of the coding region, and we have identified a number of specific coding-region mutations by direct sequencing or restriction-fragment–length–polymorphism tests. This allows us to define new haplogroups (clades of the mtDNA phylogeny) and to dissect the Han mtDNA pool on a phylogenetic basis, which is a prerequisite for any fine-grained phylogeographic analysis, the interpretation of ancient mtDNA, or future complete mtDNA sequencing efforts. Some of the haplogroups under study differ considerably in frequencies across different provinces. The southernmost provinces show more pronounced contrasts in their regional Han mtDNA pools than the central and northern provinces. These and other features of the geographical distribution of the mtDNA haplogroups observed in the Han Chinese make an initial Paleolithic colonization from south to north plausible but would suggest subsequent migration events in China that mainly proceeded from north to south and east to west. Lumping together all regional Han mtDNA pools into one fictive general mtDNA pool or choosing one or two regional Han populations to represent all Han Chinese is inappropriate for prehistoric considerations as well as for forensic purposes or medical disease studies.

PC Map of the mtDNA Data of 13 Regional Han Samples

 

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia
Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

 

 

* Genetic Polymorphism of Mitochondrial DNA in Coding Region in 16 Ethnic Populations of Yunnan by L. Gao, et al.

Abstract: The genetic polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA in the coding region in 16 ethnic populations of Yunnan was analyzed using PCR-RFLP in a total of 654 samples. Seventeen haplogroups were found, four of which were undefined haplogroups. Haplogroup distribution and Principal Component (PC) analysis showed that the ethnic groups descended from Bai-Yue tribe have B, F and M7 as the predominant haplogroups,which indicated their origination from southern China. Haplogroup A, D and N9 were predominant in the Mongolian ethnic group, reflecting their north-originated characteristics. The groups descended from Di-Qiang tribe shared the predominant haplogroups with both the south and north originated groups,which demonstrated that they inherit the maternal characteristics from both southern and northern populations. There is genetic difference among the populations in the same ethnic group and is usually smaller than that among the ethnic groups from different ancient tribes, but not necessarily smaller than that among the groups from the same tribe.

 

 

* Principal Component Analysis of Y-chromosome Haplotype Distribution in 18 Ethnic Groups in Yunnan Province by D.L. Dong, et al.

Abstract: Based on the historical records, 18 of the 26 ethnic groups in Yunnan Province are the descendant populations of three ancient tribes, Bai-Yue, Bai-Pu and Di-Qiang, linguistically belonging to the Daic, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman, respectively. In order to trace the origins of these native ethnic groups, a total of 13 East Asian specific Y-chromosome biallelic markers were used to study the genetic structure of 20 local populations covering all the 18 ethnic groups in Yunnan Province. Haplotypes were analysis by PCR-RFLP method. Our results showed that H11 and H12 were the predominant haplotypes in the descendant populations of Bai-Yue tribe. H5, H6 and H8 were the dominant haplotypes in Di-Qiang descendants, and the frequencies of H6, H8 and H11 were very high in the descendant populations of Bai-Pu. To investigate relationships among 20 populations, a three dimensional PC analysis were performed based on the distribution of the 13 haplotypes. All populations were divided into two clusters in the PC plot. The first cluster was mainly composed by the descendant populations of Bai-Yue, and the second one was mainly composed by the descendants of Di-Qiang tribe. This result indicated that Bai-Yue and Di-Qiang's paternal lineage had different origins, which was in agreement with the historical documents and linguistic classification.

 

 

* The Polymorphism of Y Chromosome and mtDNA Distribution Among Two Bai Populations by Dong Yong-li, et al.

Abstract: In the same ethnic group, people residing at different places may have genetic difference. The difference can be the results of migration and admixture events happened in history. To clarify the genetic relationship and micro-evolution of two Bai ethnic populations residing in Yunnan and Hunan province respectively,we investigated their genetic difference from paternal and maternal genealogy with six other ethnic groups as outgroups. Fourteen loci from mtDNA and thirteen loci from Y chromosome were selected for genotyping using PCR-RFLP methods. Result showed that H6 and H8 are the same dominant Y chromosome haplotypes in two Bai groups. However,the distribution of mtDNA haplogroups showed difference between two Bai populations. D, B, M8 are the predominant haplogroups in Hunan Bai ethnic population, whereas M, G, F are dominant in Yunnan Bai ethnic population. Principal Component (PC) analysis based on the Y chromosome haplotypes showed that two Bai ethic populations cluster together. It shows a close paternal genetic relationship between two Bai ethnic populations. From the mtDNA PC plot, it is clear that Hunan Bai is close to Hunan Han and Tujia, whereas Yunnan Bai is close to ethnic groups living in Yunnan province. The difference of mtDNA haplogroup distribution in two Bai people may reflect the maternal gene flow between ethnic groups living in Hunan province after the ancestors of Hunan Bai migrated from Yunnan province to Hunan province 800 years ago.

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Yunnan Nationalities in China by Y. P. Qian, et al.

Abstract :  Nucleotide sequences of the D-loop region of human mitochondrial DNA from four Yunnan nationalities, Dai, Wa, Lahu, and Tibetan, were analyzed. Based on a comparison of 563-bp sequences in 99 people, 66 different sequence types were observed. Of these, 64 were unique to their respective populations, whereas only 2 types were shared between the Lahu and Wa nationalities. The D-loop sequence variation and phylogenetic analysis suggested that the 99 mtDNA lineages were classified into eight clusters in the phylogenetic tree. All lineages that had a 9-bp deletion in the COII/tRNALys intergenic region appeared in one cluster in the D-loop tree, suggesting a single event of the deletion in the Yunnan nationalities studied. Genetic distances, based on net nucleotide diversities between populations including Han Chinese and mainland Japanese, revealed that the Dai, Wa, Lahu, and Han Chinese are closely related to each other, while Tibetan and mainland Japanese formed a single cluster. The bootstrap probabil-ity of separation between the Dai-Wa-Lahu-Chinese clade and the Tibetan-Japanese clade was 99%, indicating that there are at least two different origins among minority groups in Yunnan province. Although the genetic distance between Tibetan and Japanese within the clade is rather long, the results may shed light on the origins of mainland Japanese.

 

 

* Genetic Analysis of 17 Biallelic Markers on Y Chromosome in 3 Chinese Ethnic Group Populations by JK Yu, et al.

OBJECTIVE: To study the genetic polymorphism of Y chromosome in different Chinese ethnic group populations. METHODS: Genotypes of 17 biallelic markers located in the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome in 76 men from 3 Chinese ethnic group populations (Han in Shandong, Bai in Yunnan, and Tu in Qinghai) were examined with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and allelic-specific PCR (ASPCR). Their haplotypes made of these 17 binary markers were constructed. The principle component (PC) analysis was conducted based on the haplotype frequency distribution among these 3 and other 15 published Chinese ethnic group populations. RESULTS: The diversities of M50, M110, M103, M88, M3, and M7 were not found in these 3 populations. The frequencies of YAP+ were 23.8%, 6.7%, and 4% respectively in Tu, Bai, and Shandong Han. Eleven haplotypes were found in 3 populations--7 haplotypes (H1, H3, H5, H6, H8, H9, and H11) in Shandong Han (Han.SD), 8 haplotypes (H1, H2, H3, H5, H6, H8, H11, and H16) in Tu, and 9 haplotypes (H1, H3, H4, H5, H6, H8, H9, H11, and H13) in Bai. The predominant haplotypes were H1, H3, H5, H6, H8, and H11. According to PC analysis, Bai was close to Northern Han; Shandong Han, Southern Han (Han.S), Bai and Yunnan Tibetan clustered together; and Tu was close to Yi, Hui and Manchurian. CONCLUSIONS: Shandong Han may have had genetic exchanges with southern populations in China. It has been confirmed that some gene components of Han had flowed into Bai's gene pool. Gene flowed from Central Asia had impacted Chinese western populations.

 

 

* Analyses of Genetic Structure of Tibeto-Burman Populations Reveals Sex-Biased Admixture in Southern Tibeto-Burmans by Bo Wen, et al.

Abstract: An unequal contribution of male and female lineages from parental populations to admixed ones is not uncommon in the American continents, as a consequence of directional gene flow from European men into African and Hispanic Americans in the past several centuries. However, little is known about sex-biased admixture in East Asia, where substantial migrations are recorded. Tibeto-Burman (TB) populations were historically derived from ancient tribes of northwestern China and subsequently moved to the south, where they admixed with the southern natives during the past 2,600 years. They are currently extensively distributed in China and Southeast Asia. In this study, we analyze the variations of 965 Y chromosomes and 754 mtDNAs in >20 TB populations from China. By examining the haplotype group distributions of Y-chromosome and mtDNA markers and their principal components, we show that the genetic structure of the extant southern Tibeto-Burman (STB) populations were primarily formed by two parental groups: northern immigrants and native southerners. Furthermore, the admixture has a bias between male and female lineages, with a stronger influence of northern immigrants on the male lineages (~62%) and with the southern natives contributing more extensively to the female lineages (~56%) in the extant STBs. This is the first genetic evidence revealing sex-biased admixture in STB populations, which has genetic, historical, and anthropological implications.

 

 

* Genetic structure of X-STR loci in Bai, Dai and Yi ethnic groups and their affinity with five major populations of China by S.G. Wei, et al.

To determine the genetic polymorphism of three X-STR loci for Bai, Dai, Yi ethnic groups from Yunnan Province, DXS6804, DXS6799 and DXS7132 were genotyped by multiplex PCR and Genscan. Eighteen alleles and thirty-eight genotypes were detected in 89 Bai unrelated persons. The gene frequencies ranged from 0.0200 to 0.6400, and the geno-types frequencies ranged from 0.0256 to 0.3333. Seventeen alleles and twenty-four genotypes were detected in 100 Dai unrelated persons, with the gene frequencies ranging from 0.0135 to 0.7500 and the genotypes frequencies ranging from 0.0385 to 0.5769 respectively. There were 20 alleles and 35 genotypes detected in 88 Yi unrelated persons. The gene frequencies ranged from 0.0125 to 0.5875, and the genotypes frequencies ranged from 0.0250 to 0.3500. The genetic information demonstrated that the three loci are highly polymorphisms in Bai, Dai, Yi ethnic groups. Cluster analysis and phylogenic tree showed the genetic affinity between Bai, Dai, Yi, and Tibet populations.

 

 

* Analysis of HLA-DRB1,DQB1 Allele Polymorphism in the Kunming Yi Nationality Population by G. Wen, et al.

Conclusion: The distribution of HLA-DRB1, DQB1 allele polymorphism in the Kunming Yi nationality population is distinctive. It is neither like that in the South Han population nor like that in the North Han population.

 

 

* Genetic structure of X-STR loci in Bai, Dai and Yi ethnic groups and their affinity with five major populations of China by S.G. Wei, et al.

Abstract: To determine the genetic polymorphism of three X-STR loci for Bai, Dai, Yi ethnic groups from Yunnan Province, DXS6804, DXS6799 and DXS7132 were genotyped by multiplex PCR and Genscan. Eighteen alleles and thirty-eight genotypes were detected in 89 Bai unrelated persons. The gene frequencies ranged from 0.0200 to 0.6400, and the geno-types frequencies ranged from 0.0256 to 0.3333. Seventeen alleles and twenty-four genotypes were detected in 100 Dai unrelated persons, with the gene frequencies ranging from 0.0135 to 0.7500 and the genotypes frequencies ranging from 0.0385 to 0.5769 respectively. There were 20 alleles and 35 genotypes detected in 88 Yi unrelated persons. The gene frequencies ranged from 0.0125 to 0.5875, and the genotypes frequencies ranged from 0.0250 to 0.3500. The genetic information demonstrated that the three loci are highly polymorphisms in Bai, Dai, Yi ethnic groups. Cluster analysis and phylogenic tree showed the genetic affinity between Bai, Dai, Yi, and Tibet populations.

 

 

* Combining Genetics and Population History in the Study of Ethnic Diversity in the People's Republic of China by W. Wang, et al.

Summary: Genomic data have increasingly been used to complement linguistic, archeological, and anthropological evidence in reconstructing the origins and migratory patterns of modern humans. East Asia is a particular hotspot of human migration, especially mainland China, where a large number of human fossils have been unearthed and more than 20% of the world's population now resides. There are 56 officially recognized ethnic populations (minzu) in China. In the present study we investigated the ancestry and genetic diversity of nine populations: the majority Han of Liaoning Province; the Miao, Yao, Kucong, and Tibetan communities of Yunnan Province in southwest China; and four Muslim populations, the Hui, Bonan, Dongxiang, and Sala from central and northern China. We used both biparental and uniparental markers to determine patterns of diversity at autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y-chromosome loci. The study populations displayed several paternal origins but restricted maternal ancestries. From the Y-chromosome data in particular, major demographic changes, such as the Neolithic population expansion and more recent historical events including migration along the Silk Road, could be inferred. Specific aspects of the internal structure and organization of the study populations, including endogamy and consanguinity, were uncovered using autosomal markers. However, we encountered interpretive problems in terms of the definition of the present-day ethnic study populations in China, which appear to reflect past and present political as well as genetic influences.

Results: ... Most of the Han and Miao Y-cbromosome haplotypes were haplogroup O and subhaplogroup 03 (Han freq. = 0.227 and 0.480 for the O and 03 baplogroups. respectively; and Miao freq. ^ 0.282 and 0.533 for the O and 03 haplogroups, respectively), which indicates shared paternal origins in East Asia. These origins have previously been described as stemming from the Neolithic expansion across China at about 10,000 years B.P. (SU et al. 1999; Ding et al. 2000; Deng et al. 2004; Wen et al. 2004b). Haplogroup D was present at high frequencies in the Tibetan sample population (freq. = 0.550) and in the Yao (freq. = 0.571). These results complement previous reports tbat haplogroup D was found at significant frequencies, if at all, only in Tibetan and Japanese populations (Torroni et al. 1994; Qian et al. 2000; Deng et al. 2004) and in some Yunnan ethnic groups (Wen et al. 2004b). The Kucong patemai ancestral heritage was markedly different from all tbe other study populations …

 

 

* The Distribution of Y Chromosome Haplogroups in the Nationalities from Yunnan Province of China by Zhili Yang, et al.  

Abstract : The genetic structure of 26 identified nationalities from Yunnan Province of China was studied using Y chromosome haplogroups. A total of 12 haplogroups were obtained in 1214 male samples from all the nationalities. The genetic relationships among 26 nationalities were studied. The ethnic groups were compared according to their different ancient lineages. The ancient lineages had their own characteristics in the distribution of Y chromosome haplogroups. Our results showed that Yunnan Province has great genetic diversity in its people. The ethnic groups differ from each other in the number of haplogroups and haplogroup frequencies. The genetic evidence was in agreement with the study of linguistic and historical records.

 

 

* Genetic Relationships of Ethnic Minorities in Southwest China Revealed by Microsatellite Markers by Hongbin Lin, et al.

Abstract: Population migrations in Southwest and South China have played an important role in the formation of East Asian populations and led to a high degree of cultural diversity among ethnic minorities living in these areas. To explore the genetic relationships of these ethnic minorities, we systematically surveyed the variation of 10 autosomal STR markers of 1,538 individuals from 30 populations of 25 ethnic minorities, of which the majority were chosen from Southwest China, especially Yunnan Province. With genotyped data of the markers, we constructed phylogenies of these populations with both DA and DC measures and performed a principal component analysis, as well as a clustering analysis by structure. Results showed that we successfully recovered the genetic structure of analyzed populations formed by historical migrations. Aggregation patterns of these populations accord well with their linguistic affiliations, suggesting that deciphering of genetic relationships does in fact offer clues for study of ethnic differentiation.

 

Unrooted Neighbor-joining Tree Constructed with DA Distances

 

 

Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

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HLA-B75

HLA-B75 (B75) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies certain B*15 gene-allele protein products of HLA-B.

B75 is one of many split antigens of the broad antigen, B15. B75 (B*1502) is associated with a severe drug-induced skin condition in ethnic East Asians.

HLA-B*1502 is associated with Carbamazepine and phenytoin induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome in Chinese and Thai. One study showed a 100% association between B*1502 and the drug induced skin disorder in Chinese. In Europe the B*1502 positive patients are only found in this syndrome of persons of East Asian descent, however B58 confers susceptibility to both groups but to a lesser degree and is sensitive to allopurinol.

 

HLA B*1502 Frequencies

Population	(%)
Philippines Ivatan	22.0
Taiwan Puyuma	18.0
China Guangxi Maonan	14.8
China Yunnan Lisu	12.3
Taiwan Tao	12.0
Singapore Chinese Han	11.6
China Guangzhou	11.0
Hong Kong Chinese	10.2
China Yunnan Nu	9.0
Singapore Riau Malay	8.4
Singapore Javanese Indonesians	8.2
Thailand (3)	8.2
China South Han	7.1
Singapore Thai	6.1
India Khandesh Pawra	6.0
Taiwan Minnan pop 1	5.9
Singapore Chinese	5.7
India West Bhils	4.0
Taiwan Pazeh	3.6
China Guangdong Meizhou Han	3.5
South Africa Natal Tamil	3.1
China Qinghai Hui	2.7
Taiwan Hakka	2.7
Shijiazhuang Tianjian Han	2.4
China North Han	1.9
India Mumbai Marathas	1.9
India North Delhi	1.6
China Beijing	1.5
China Inner Mongolia	1.5
American Samoa	1.0
India North Hindus	1.0
Taiwan Siraya	1.0
Taiwan Tsou	1.0
Ingig. Australian Groote Eylandt	0.7
United Arab Emirates	0.6

 

 

Stevens–Johnson Syndrome

Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) are two forms of a life-threatening condition affecting the skin in which cell death causes the epidermis to separate from the dermis. The syndrome is thought to be a hypersensitivity complex affecting the skin and the mucous membranes. Although the majority of cases are idiopathic, the main class of known causes is medications, followed by infections and (rarely) cancers.

Signs and Symptoms: SJS usually begins with fever, sore throat, and fatigue, which is misdiagnosed and usually treated with antibiotics. Ulcers and other lesions begin to appear in the mucous membranes, almost always in the mouth and lips but also in the genital and anal regions. Those in the mouth are usually extremely painful and reduce the patient's ability to eat or drink. Conjunctivitis of the eyes occurs in about 30% of children who develop SJS. A rash of round lesions about an inch across arises on the face, trunk, arms and legs, and soles of the feet, but usually not the scalp.

Medication/Drugs: It can be caused by adverse effects of drugs (allopurinol, Aloprim, Zyloprim, Dilantin, Depakote, Levaquin, diclofenac, etravirine, Isotretinoin, aka Accutane, fluconazole, valdecoxib, sitagliptin, oseltamivir, penicillins, barbiturates, sulfonamides, phenytoin, azithromycin, oxcarbazepine, zonisamide, modafinil, lamotrigine, nevirapine, pyrimethamine, ibuprofen, ethosuximide, carbamazepine, nystatin, and gout medications).

Although Stevens–Johnson Syndrome can be caused by viral infections, malignancies or severe allergic reactions to medication, the leading cause appears to be the use of antibiotics and sulfa drugs.

Medications that have traditionally been known to lead to SJS, erythema multiforme and toxic epidermal necrolysis include sulfonamides (antibiotics), penicillins (antibiotics), barbiturates (sedatives), lamotrigine and phenytoin (e.g. Dilantin) (anticonvulsants). Combining lamotrigine with sodium valproate increases the risk of SJS.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are a rare cause of SJS in adults; the risk is higher for older patients, women and those initiating treatment. Typically, the symptoms of drug-induced SJS arise within a week of starting the medication. People with systemic lupus erythematosus or HIV infections are more susceptible to drug-induced SJS.

SJS has also been consistently reported as an uncommon side effect of herbal supplements containing ginseng. SJS may also be caused by cocaine usage.

Prognosis: SJS proper (with less than 10% of body surface area involved) has a mortality rate of around 5%. The risk for death can be estimated using the SCORTEN scale, which takes a number of prognostic indicators into account. Other outcomes include organ damage/failure, cornea scratching and blindness.

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History of Yunnan

The Yuanmou Man (元謀人), a Homo erectus fossil unearthed by railway engineers in the 1960s, has been determined to be the oldest known hominid fossil in China. By the Neolithic period, there were human settlements in the area of Lake Dian. These people used stone tools and constructed simple wooden structures.

Around the third century BC, the central area of Yunnan around present day Kunming was known as Dian. The Chu general Zhuang Qiao (庄跤) entered the region from the upper Yangtze River and set himself up as "King of Dian". He and his followers brought into Yunnan an influx of Chinese influence, the start of a long history of migration and cultural expansion.

In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang unified China and extended his authority south. Commanderies and counties were established in Yunnan. An existing road in Sichuan – the "Five Foot Way" – was extended south to around present day Qujing (曲靖), in eastern Yunnan. In 109 BC, Emperor Wu sent General Guo Chang (郭昌) south to Yunnan, establishing Yizhou commandery and 24 subordinate counties. The commandery seat was at Dianchi county (present day Jinning 晋宁). Another county was called "Yunnan", probably the first use of the name. To expand the burgeoning trade with Burma and India, Emperor Wu also sent Tang Meng (唐蒙) to maintain and expand the Five Foot Way, renaming it "Southwest Barbarian Way" (西南夷道). By this time, agricultural technology in Yunnan had improved markedly. The local people used bronze tools, plows and kept a variety of livestock, including cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. Anthropologists have determined that these people were related to the people now known as the Tai. They lived in tribal congregations, sometimes led by exiled Chinese.

During the Three Kingdoms, the territory of present day Yunnan, western Guizhou and southern Sichuan was collectively called Nanzhong. The dissolution of Chinese central authority led to increased autonomy for Yunnan and more power for the local tribal structures. In AD 225, the famed statesman Zhuge Liang led three columns into Yunnan to pacify the tribes. His seven captures of Meng Huo, a local magnate, is much celebrated in Chinese folklore.

In the fourth century, northern China was largely overrun by nomadic tribes from the north. In the 320s, the Cuan (爨) clan migrated into Yunnan. Cuan Chen (爨琛) named himself king and held authority from Lake Dian (then called Kunchuan [昆川]). Henceforth the Cuan clan ruled Yunnan for over four hundred years. In 738, the kingdom of Nanzhao was established in Yunnan by Piluoge (皮罗阁), who was confirmed by the imperial court of the Tang Dynasty as king of Yunnan. Ruling from Dali, the thirteen kings of Nanzhao ruled over more than two centuries and played a part in the dynamic relationship between China and Tibet. In 937, Duan Siping (段思平) overthrew the Nanzhao and established the Kingdom of Dali. The kingdom was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1253. During the Yuan Dynasty Kublai Khan appointed the first governor, Turkmen Sayid Ajall, in Yunnan in 1273. Before that, the area had been ruled by a local king and a Mongol prince under the Great Khan. Yunnan and Hunan were main bases for Mongol military operations in Indo-China. The Ming Dynasty destroyed the Yuan loyalists in 1381.

In 1894, George Ernest Morrison, an Australian correspondent for The Times, travelled from Beijing to British-occupied Burma via Yunnan. His book, An Australian in China, details his experiences.

Yunnan was transformed enormously by the events of the war against Japan, which caused many east coast refugees and industrial establishments to relocate to the province. It assumed great strategic significance, particularly as the Burma Road was constructed from Kunming to Lashio in Burma during this time.

 

 

Dian Kingdom

Dian Kingdom Bronze Cowrie Container with Gilt Warrior and Four Oxen (Photo from "Barbarian Kingdoms": Ancient Treasures of South and Southwest China, The Art Institute of Chicago)

The Dian Kingdom (滇國 or 滇王國) was established by the Dian people, who lived around Lake Dian in northern Yunnan, China from the late Spring and Autumn Period until the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Dian buried their dead in vertical pit graves. The Dian language was likely related to Tibeto-Burman languages.

The Dian were first mentioned historically in Sima Qian's Shiji; some Chinese sources identified Chu general Zhuang Qiao as the founder of the Dian Kingdom. The Dian were subjugated by the Han Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu of Han in 109 BC. The Han Dynasty incorporated the territory of the Dian Kingdom into the Yizhou Commandery, but left the King of Dian as the local ruler.

History: Zhuan Qiao, once a Chu (state) general, attacked Yunnan in about 279 BC. While he successfully subdued the local people, the Chu was defeated, and Zhuan Qiao proclaimed himself the King of Dian, and founded this kingdom.

Royal Burials: The Dian buried their kings at Shizhaishan (discovered in 1954). The burials were identified by the inscription, King Dian's Seal. The inscription was written in seal script on a gold imperial seal given by the Han Emperor. Sima Qian noted that the Dian were one of only two local groups to have received an imperial seal, the other being Yelang.

Bronze Working: The Dian people were sophisticated metal workers, casting both bronze and iron. The Dian cast bronze objects using both the piece mould method and the lost wax method. Dian elite burials contained an impressive array of bronze objects, although late Dian burials also contained locally cast iron objects.

Large bronze drums were employed by the Dian to communicate in battle; ritual burials of Dian elites were accompanied by large bronze drums filled with cowrie shells. The tops of the drums were removed and replaced by a bronze lid.

Scythian Influences? Iaroslav Lebedynsky and Victor Mair speculate that some Scythians may also have migrated to the area of Yunnan in southern China following their expulsion by the Yuezhi in the 2nd century BC. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the Dian civilization of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing. The scenes depicted on these drums sometimes represent these horsemen practicing hunting. Animal scenes of felines attacking oxes are also at times reminiscent of Scythian art both in theme and in composition.

Depiction of Dian Society: The bronze lids were covered with miniature figurines and structures, depicting various scenes from the life of the Dian people. The bronze lids depicted the Dian people engaged in everyday activities such as hunting, farming and weaving. Other scenes depicted the leisurely pursuits of the Dian people, such as bullfighting, dancing and music-making. The Dian people dressed in tunics over short pants and wore their hair in topknots. The bronze lids corroborated Sima Qian's description of the Dian hairstyle.

Many scenes depicted the Dian at war, often riding horses. Archaeological evidence shows that horses had been domesticated by the Dian people as early as the sixth century BC. The bronze lids also depicted the Dian decapitating their enemies (who wore their hair in long plaits).

Underwater Ruins: An archaeologist in China recently purported to have discovered the inundated remains of a Dian city under Lake Fuxian; some archaeologist believe that the ruins are the remains of the capital of the Dian Kingdom. An earthquake and subsequent flood killed the inhabitants and completely destroyed the city in 110. None of this has been substantiated.

Other Artifacts: At Dabona, a site connected with the Dian culture, archaeologists discovered a large double coffin burial; The outer coffin was made of wood and the inner coffin was made of bronze. The inner coffin was shaped like a house and weighs over 157 kg.

The Yunnan Provincial Museum holds many archaeological relics of the Dian culture.

 

 

Kingdom of Nanzho

Nanzhao, alternate spellings Nanchao and Nan Chao (南詔) was a polity that flourished in what is now southern China and Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries. It was centered around present-day Yunnan in China.

Founding and Ethnography: Originally, there were several tribes that settled on the fertile land around Erhai lake. These tribes were called Mengshe (蒙舍), Mengsui (蒙嶲), Langqiong (浪穹), Dengtan (邆賧), Shilang (施浪), and Yuexi (越析). Each tribe had its own kingdom, known as a zhao. In 649 AD the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo (細奴邏), founded a kingdom (Damengguo 大蒙國) in the area of Lake Erhai. In the year AD 737, with the support of the Tang Dynasty of China, Piluoge united the six zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao, (i.e., 'Southern Zhao').

Nanzhao was made up of many ethnic and linguistic groups. Some historians believe that the majority of the population were of the Bai people, but that the elite spoke a variant of Yi, a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese. In any case, the capital was established in 738 at Taihe (modern day Taihe village, a few miles south of Dali). Located in the heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against attack, and it was in the midst of rich farmland.

From 680 AD it came under Tibetan control. The Tibetans recognised their suzerainty after 703 and then took it under their control again from 750-794, when Nanzhao turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped China defeat their armies.

Expansion: In 750, Nanzhao rebelled against the Tang Dynasty. In retaliation, the Tang sent an army against Nanzhao in 751, but this army was soundly defeated at Xiaguan. (It was in the same year that the Tang suffered another serious defeat at the hands of the Arabs at the Battle of Talas in Central Asia; these defeats weakened the dynasty both internally and externally.) Today the General's Cave (two km west of Xiaguan), and the Tomb of Ten Thousand Soldiers (in Tianbao Park) bear witness to this great massacre. In 754 another army was sent, this time from the north, but it too was defeated. Bolstered by these successes, Nanzhao expanded rapidly, first into Burma, then into the rest of Yunnan, down into northern Laos and Thailand, and finally, north into Sichuan. In 829, Chengdu was taken; it was a great prize, as it enabled Nanzhao to lay claim to the whole of Sichuan province, with its rich paddy fields. This was too much for the Tang Dynasty, who lost no time in counterattacking.

Decline: By 873, Nanzhao had been expelled from Sichuan, and retreated back to Yunnan. Taking Chengdu marked the high point of the Nanzhao kingdom, and it was a watershed: from then on, the Nanzhao Kingdom slowly declined.

Overthrow: In 902, the Nanzhao dynasty was overthrown, and it was followed by three other dynasties in quick succession, until Duan Siping seized power in 937 to establish the Kingdom of Dali.

 

 

Kingdom of Dali

Dali (大理國) was a Bai kingdom centred in what is now Yunnan Province of China. Established by Duan Siping in 937, it was ruled by a succession of 22 kings until the year 1253, when it was destroyed by an invasion of the Mongol Empire. The capital city was at Dali.

The Kingdom of Dali was preceded by the Nanzhao Dynasty, which was overthrown in 902. Three dynasties followed in quick succession, until Duan Siping seized power in 937 and established Dali. Gao Shengtai forced the puppet king Duan Zhengming to abdicate and become a monk in 1095, and renamed the state Dazhong. He returned the power to the Duan family upon his death. Duan Zhengchun renamed the state Hou Li (lit. The later Dali) in the next year.

The 11th king of Nanzhao established Buddhism as the state religion. Ten of the 22 kings of Dali gave up the throne and became monks.

It is claimed that despite their military prowess and superior numbers, the Mongols could not breach the defenses of the Erhai valley, which was so suited to defense that even just a few defenders could hold out for years. It is said that the Mongols found a traitor who led them over the Cangshan mountains along a secret path, and only in this way were they able to penetrate and overrun the Bai defenders. Thus ended five centuries of independence. In 1274 the Province of Yunnan was created, and the region has since been incorporated within China.

 

 

Kunming

Kunming (昆明) is capital of Yunnan province, in southwestern China. Because of its year-round temperate climate, Kunming is often called the "Spring City" or "City of Eternal Spring" (春城).

Kunming is the political, economic, communications and cultural center of Yunnan, and is the seat of the provincial government. It is also home to several universities, museums, galleries and other important economic, cultural, and educational institutions. The headquarters of many of Yunnan's large businesses are in Kunming as well. It was important during World War II as a Chinese military center, American air base, and transport terminus for the Burma Road. Located in the middle of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Kunming is located at an altitude of 1,900 m above sea level and at a latitude just north of the Tropic of Cancer. Kunming has an estimated population of 5,740,000 including 3,055,000 in the urban area and is located at the northern edge of the large Lake Dian, surrounded by temples and lake-and-limestone hill landscapes.

Kunming consists of an old, previously walled city, a modern commercial district, residential and university areas. On the outskirts is a famed bronze temple, dating from the Ming dynasty. Kunming was formerly called Yunnanfu (云南府; literally meaning "Yunnan Capital") until the 1920s.

It is the leading transportation hub (air, road, rail) in SW China, with a rail connection to Vietnam and road links to Burma and Laos. Situated in a fertile plain 640 km southwest of Chongqing, Kunming is an important trading center between the far west and central and south China. Although it was often the seat of kings in ancient times, Kunming's modern prosperity dates only from 1910, when the railroad from Hanoi was built.

 

Burma Road

The Burma Road (滇缅公路) is a road linking Burma (also called Myanmar) with China. Its terminals are Kunming, Yunnan and Lashio, Burma. When it was built, Burma was a British colony.

The road is 717 miles (1,154 km) long and runs through rough mountain country. The sections from Kunming to the Burmese border were built by 200,000 Chinese laborers during the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and completed by 1938. It had a role in World War II, when the British used the Burma Road to transport war materiel to China before Japan was at war with the British. Supplies would be landed at Rangoon (now Yangon) and moved by rail to Lashio, where the road started in Burma. After the Japanese overran Burma in 1942, the Allies were forced to supply Chiang Kai-shek (also called Jiang Jieshi) and the nationalist Chinese by air. They flew these supplies from airfields in Assam, India over the eastern end of the Himalaya uplift. At the insistence of the United States, and much to the chagrin of Winston Churchill, the wartime leader of Britain, British forces were given, as their primary goal in the war against Japan, the task of recapturing Burma and reopening land communication with China. Under British command Indian, British, Chinese, and American forces, the latter led by Vinegar Joe Stilwell, defeated a Japanese attempt to capture Assam and recaptured northern Burma. In this area they built a new road, the Ledo Road which ran from Ledo Assam, through Myitkina and connected to the old Burma Road at Wandingzhen, Yunnan, China. The first trucks reached the Chinese frontier by this route on January 28, 1945. (Winston Churchill, The Second World War, v. VI, chap. 11.)

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Ancient Tea Route

 

The Ancient Tea Route (茶馬古道) was a network of mule caravan paths winding through the mountains of Yunnan Province in Southwest China. It is also referred to as the Southern Silk Road. From around a thousand years ago, the Ancient Tea Route was a trade link from Yunnan, one of the first tea-producing regions: to India via Burma; to Tibet; and to central China via Sichuan Province. In addition to tea, the mule caravans carried salt.

It is believed that it was through this trading network that tea (typically tea bricks) spread across China and Asia from its origins in Pu'er county, near Simao Prefecture in Yunnan.

 

 

Yunnan Red

Dian hong (滇紅). "Yunnan Red", is a Chinese black tea which is used as a relatively high end gourmet black tea and is sometimes used in various tea blends. The main difference between Dian hong and other Chinese black teas is the amount of fine leaf buds, or "golden tips," present in the dried tea. Fermented with lychee, rose and longan, Dian hong teas produces a brew that is brassy golden orange in colour with a sweet, gentle aroma and no astringency. Cheaper varieties of Dian hong produce a darker brownish brew that can be very bitter.

Teas grown in the Yunnan Province of China prior to the Han dynasty were typically exported in a compressed form similar to modern pu-erh tea. Dian hong is a relatively new product from Yunnan that began production in the early 20th century. The word "Diān" (滇) is the short name for the Yunnan region while "hóng" (紅) means "red (tea)"; as such, these teas are sometimes simply referred to as Yunnan red or Yunnan black. However, such references are often confusing due to the other varieties of teas produced in Yunnan as well as the ambiguous nature of the color classifications.

Tasting and Brewing: Dian hong teas are best brewed with porcelain gaiwan or yixing teaware using freshly boiled water at 90°C (194°F) to 100°C (212°F), and are suitable for multiple infusions. It is important not to overbrew the teas as they will easily go bitter or exhibit astringency, especially the cheaper varieties. SFTGFOP.

 

Pu-erh Tea

Pu-erh, Pu'er tea, Puer tea or Bolay tea (普洱茶) is a type of tea made from a "large leaf" variety of the tea plant Camellia sinensis and named after Pu'er county near Simao, Yunnan, China.

Pu-erh tea can be purchased as either raw/green (sheng) or ripened/cooked (shu), depending on processing method or aging. Sheng pu-erh can be roughly classified on the tea oxidation scale as a green tea, and the shou or aged-green variants as post-fermented tea. The fact that pu-erh fits in more than one tea type poses some problems for classification. For this reason, the "green tea" aspect of pu-erh is sometimes ignored, and the tea is regarded solely as a post-fermented product. Unlike other teas that should ideally be consumed shortly after production, pu-erh can be drunk immediately or aged for many years; pu-erh teas are often now classified by year and region of production much like wine vintages.

While there are many counterfeit pu-erhs on the market and real aged pu-erh is difficult to find and identify, it is still possible to find pu-erh that is 10 to 50 years old, as well as a few from the late Qing dynasty. Indeed, tea connoisseurs and speculators are willing to pay high prices for older pu-erh, upwards of thousands of dollars per cake.

Pu-erh tea is available as loose leaf or as cakes of compacted tea (see Tea brick).

Introduction and History: Pu-erh tea is traditionally made with leaves from old wild tea trees of a variety known as "broad leaf tea" (大葉) or Camellia sinensis var. assamica, which is found in southwest China as well as the bordering tropical regions in Burma, Vietnam, Laos, and the very eastern parts of India. The shoots and young leaves from this varietal are often covered with fine hairs, with the pekoe (two leaves and a bud) larger than other tea varietals. The leaves are also slightly different in chemical composition, which alter the taste and aroma of the brewed tea, as well as its desirability for aging. Due to the scarcity of old wild tea trees, pu-erh made using such trees blended from different tea mountains of Yunnan are highly valued, while more and more connoisseurs are seeking pu-erh with leaves taken from a single tea mountain's wild forests. The history of pu-erh tea can be traced back to the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Pu-erh is well known for the fact that it is a compressed tea and also that it typically ages well to produce a pleasant drink. Through storage, the tea typically takes on a darker colour and mellower flavour characteristics. Often pu-erh leaves are compressed into tea cakes or bricks, and are wrapped in various materials, which when stored away from excessive moisture, heat, and sunlight help to mature the tea. Pressing of pu-erh into cakes and aging the tea cakes possibly originated from the natural aging process that happened in the storerooms of tea drinkers and merchants, as well as on horseback caravans on the Ancient tea route that was used in ancient Yunnan to trade tea to Tibet and more northern parts of China. Compression of the tea into dense bulky objects likely eased horseback transport and reduced damage to the tea.

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United Hearts Youth Foundation