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Hainan

 

Sanya Street

 

Hainan Culture

Hainan has always been on the fringe of the Chinese cultural sphere. Traditionally, the island was a place of exile for criminals and disgraced officials. As a frontier region celebrated by such exiled poets as Su Dongpo, Hainan acquired an air of mystery and romance. The influx of large numbers of mainlanders after 1950 - particularly in the 1970s, when young Chinese from southern Guangdong were assigned to state farms to help develop Hainan, and in the 1980s, when thousands more came to take advantage of the economic opportunities offered - has perpetuated the frontier atmosphere on the island.

* Dongpo Academy

 

Hainan Cuisine

Hainan cuisine is said to be "lighter, with mild seasonings." A lot of local taste is mixed with the Han Chinese taste. Seafood predominates the menu, as shrimp, crab, fish and other sea life are widely available.

Wenchang Chicken is a dish known throughout the province of Hainan.

 

Hainan Chicken Rice

 

Hainan

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Hainan (海南; literal meaning: "South of the Sea") is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, all but three percent of its land mass is on Hainan Island (Hainan Dao), from which the province takes its name. To say "Hainan" in China usually refers to Hainan Island itself. The PRC government claims Hainan's territories to extend to the southern Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands and other disputed marine territory. Hainan is also the largest Special Economic Zone laid out by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping in the late 1980s.

Hainan Island is located in the South China Sea, separated from Guangdong's Leizhou Peninsula to the north by a shallow and narrow strait. It has an area of 33,920 square kilometers and is China's southernmost province. For centuries Hainan was part of Guangdong province, but in 1988 this resource-rich tropical island became a separate province. The capital is Haikou.

There are 8 major cities and 10 counties on Hainan and the Xisha Islands in the south of Sanya City.

The major cities of Hainan Island are (going clockwise): Haikou, Wenchang, Qionghai, Wanning, Wuzhishan (or five finger Mountain), Sanya, Dongfang, Danzhou.

 

Geography

Hainan, separated by the Qiongzhou Strait (瓊州海峽) from the Leizhou Peninsula (雷州半島) of Guangdong, is the largest island administered by the People's Republic of China. The size of Hainan (33,920 km2) is comparable to the size of Belgium. To the west of Hainan is the Gulf of Tonkin. Wuzhi Mountain (1,876 m) is the highest mountain on the island

The human occupation is of low density compare to most Chinese costal provinces. Compare to Taiwan, to other island of the Chinese world, Hainan have both fewer montain and so more plains, with 3 times lower human population (23 and 8 millions respectively).

In the official PRC territorial claim, Hainan Province includes not just one island, but also some two hundred South China Sea Islands. Whilst the containment of the South China Sea Islands means that Hainan Province has a very large water body, it has a disproportionally small land area. James Shoal (曾母暗沙 Zengmu Ansha), which is presently marked by the PRC, signifies the country's southernmost border. But the Malaysians also claim it is on their continental shelf.

 

Languages

The Han Chinese of Hainan speak a variant of the Min Nan Chinese language, known as Hainanese. In addition, the national standard Putonghua is understood and spoken by most people, and Standard Cantonese is understood by many local Hainanese. The Li people have their own language, as do the Miao and Zhuang. The latter three groups would usually speak Standard Mandarin as a second language. The villagers in Huihui and Huixin can all speak their native language Cham fluently.

 

Demographics

In 2000, the ethnic groups of Hainan included the Han Chinese, known as the Hainanese, who currently make a majority (84% of the population); the Li (Hlai) (14.7% of the population); the Miao (0.7%) and the Zhuang (0.6%). The Li are the largest indigenous group on the island in terms of population. Also found on the island are the Utsuls, descendants of Cham refugees, who are classified as Hui by the Chinese government.

Although they are indigenous to the island and do not speak a Chinese language, the Limgao (Ong-Be) people near the capital (8% of the population) are counted as Han Chinese.

 

 

 

 

Hainan People

The people of Hainan (海南人), known as Hainanese and Hainan people, usually refers to people who originate from Hainan Island, the southernmost and smallest Chinese province. The term "Hainanese" were frequently used by the Hainanese Han (海南漢人) whom are the majority of the island, to address themselves oversea. Nevertheless, other natives of the island such as Li (Hlai) (黎族), Miao (苗族), and Utsuls also use the term.

History: Most Hainanese Han people were originally fisher people from the Fujian and Guangdong provinces who later settled in Hainan, while the Li natives came to the island earlier from the mainland.

Towards the turn of the 20th century, many of them migrated to the various Southeast Asian countries, where they worked as cooks, restaurateurs, coffeeshop owners, sailors, and hoteliers. In fact, the person who actually created the world-famous Singapore Sling at the renowned Singapore Raffles Hotel, Mr. Ngiam Tong Boon, was himself a Hainanese.

Culture: The Hainanese are also known for their signature dishes such as the Hainanese Chicken Rice, Hainanese Pork Chops, Hainanese Mutton Soup, Hainanese Salted Fish Soup and Beef Noodle Soup. In Singapore, one can find some of these signature dishes served at the various eateries located along Purvis Street - which is often referred to as "Singapore's Hainan Street".

 

 

Li People

Photo from Hainan National Minority Traditional Culture

The Li (黎) or Hlai are a minority Chinese ethnic group, sometimes colloquially known as "Sai" or "Say." They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. 94% of the Li live off the southern coast of mainland China on Hainan, where they are the largest minority ethnic group. As well as Hainan, the Li people are also found in some islands in the South China Sea area that are considered Filipino territory. Native islanders of the Luzon Sea are included under the "Li" ethnic group in China.

During the Sui Dynasty they were known by the name Liliao, and presently they refer to themselves as the Hlai people. The Li suffered heavily under the Japanese occupation, and they are held in high esteem by the Beijing government because they fought on the side of the CPC against Chinese Nationalist rule during the Chinese Civil War.

The Li people can generally understand or speak Hainanese and Mandarin. Because many Li in Hainan relocate to Cantonese-speaking areas in southern mainland China near Hainan (such as Guangzhou and HK), it is common for Li people to learn and speak Cantonese.

The Li play a traditional wind instrument called kǒuxiāo (口箫), and another called lìlāluó (利拉罗).

The Hlai languages are a primary branch of the Kradai language family spoken on the island of Hainan. They include Hlai proper, with 600,000 speakers, its divergent 'dialect' Kamau, with 60,000, and Cun, which has 80,000 speakers.

 

 

Miao

The Miao (苗族) are a linguistically and culturally related group of people recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China as one of the 55 official minority groups. Miao is a Chinese term and does not reflect the self-designations of the component sub-groups, which include (with some variant spellings) Hmong/Mong, Hmu, A Hmao,and Kho (Qho) Xiong. The Miao live primarily in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. Some members of the Miao sub-groups, most notably Hmong/Mong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand).

Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples often with the connotation of "barbarian." This former meaning has not kept members of the modern nationality from self-identifying as Miao.

Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classified them according to the most characteristic colour of the women's clothes. The list below contains the self-designations, the colour designations and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China:

• Ghao Xong; Red Miao; west Hunan.
• Hmu, Gha Ne (Ka Nao); Black Miao; southeast Guizhou.
• A Hmao; Big Flowery Miao; northwest Guizhou and northeast Yunnan.
• Hmong, White Miao, Mong, Green (Blue) Miao, Small Flowery Miao; south Sichuan, west Guizhou and south Yunnan.

According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of Miao sub-groups live in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar due to migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam wars between 1949 and 1975, many Hmong/Mong people now live in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia. Altogether there are approximately 8 million speakers of Miao languages. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong/Mong-Mien (Miao-Yao) language family.

Archaeological Discoveries: Many Miao scholars believe the Dawenkou Culture to be Miao. They cite the pottery designs found in the tombs as examples. The designs are very similar to present day Miao embroideries. Combine this with the presence of Miao in Shangdong suggests the Miao's origin is not the south but the mouth of the Yellow River. It would also support the Miao's claim to the Shang Dynasty since Shangdong is part of Shang.

Lady Dai found in Tomb no. 1 at Mawangdui is believed by many Miao as a Miao woman. They cite the T-shaped banners draped over her coffin as an example of Miao burial practices and beliefs. This dispel the belief that the sinicization of the Miao was by force or even sinicized during the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang is a general under Xiang Yu meaning he commanded Miao troops and they are his base of power. When the dispute with Xiang Yu broke out Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo and Fan Kuai saved Liu Bang's life. This meant Liu Bang's support among the Miao was strong. The Han-Chu contention was not about a struggle between two groups of people but between two individuals. This explains why Miao beliefs and culture flourished during the Western Han. It would also mean that the Han nationality began when the Miao and Huaxia came together as one. The present day Miao may be the remnant of those who fled when Qin conquered Chu. They left before peace came and never returned. It would explain why Chu is acknowledged by the Miao as a Miao Kingdom but not Han given Liu Bang's base of power was former Chu in the South.

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics by Louisa Schein

 

 

 

Miao Textiles from China (Fabric Folios) by Gina Corrigan

 

 

 

 

Utsuls

The Utsuls (回輝人) or ( 海南回族) are a tiny ethnic group which lives on the Chinese island of Hainan and are considered one of the People's Republic of China's undistinguished ethnic groups. They are found on the southernmost tip of Hainan near the city of Sanya. According to the traditions of the Utsuls, their ancestors were Muslims who migrated southward out of Central Asia into their present day location. However, they are thought to be descendants of Cham refugees who fled their homeland in what is now southern Vietnam to escape from Vietnamese invasion. After the Vietnamese completed the conquest of Cham, sacking Vijaya, the capital of Champa, a Cham Prince and some 1,000 Cham moved to Hainan, where the Ming dynasty allowed them to set up an exile kingdom. Several Chinese accounts record Cham arriving on Hainan even earlier, from 986, when the Cham capital fell in 982, several Cham fled to Hainan during the Song dynasty. After the 982 fall, of the capital Indrapura to Vietnam, some Cham fled to Guangzhou in addition to Hainan.

While most of the Chams who fled Champa went to neighbouring Cambodia, a small business class fled northwards. How they came to acquire the name Utsul is unknown.

Although they are culturally distinct from their neighbours, the Chinese government places them as members of the Hui nationality. However, from reports by Hans Stübel, the German ethnographer who "discovered" them in the 1930s, their language is completely unrelated to any other language spoken in mainland China. About 3500 of them are speakers of the Tsat language, which is one of the few Malayo-Polynesian languages that are tonal. In any case, they share nothing but religion with other Hui people. However, the Chinese government defines any ethnic groups in the mainland practicing the Muslim faith that does not have a mother tongue or traditional ethnic language distinctive from the Sinitic dialects as "Hui", however, the Utsuls do have their own language distinctive from Sinitic dialects, the reasons for their classification as Hui is unknown.

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Genetic Studies

 

* Genetic Origin of Kadai-speaking Gelong People on Hainan Island Viewed from Y Chromosomes by Dongna Li, et al.

Principal Component Plots of the Populations Concerned

 

Dendrogram of the Populations Based on the Y-SNP Haplogroup Frequencies

 

Comparison of Gelong to Other Populations Using Y-SNP Haplogroup Frequencies

(Han-HaN: C, K, O1a*, O2a*, O3*, O3a3c)

 

 

* Tracing the Legacy of the Early Hainan Islanders - A perspective from mitochondrial DNA by MS Peng, et al.

Principle Components Analysis (PCA) of Populations in Southern China and Vietnam

 

 

* Ethnic Related Selection for an ADH Class I Variant within East Asia by Hui Li, et al.

Haplotype Frequencies of the ADH1B Gene Region Including the Regulatory Region

(HUQ: Tsat, LIC: Hlai))

 

 

* Polymorphic Distribution of Y-chromosome Haplotype and Mitochondrial DNA in the Bouyei People in China by Li Yong-nian, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in China and World Populations

 

 

* A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

 

 

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

 

Diagram of Relationship Based on a Cluster Analysis (UPGMA) of Mahalanobis' Generalized Distances Using 29 Cranial Measurements Recorded in 55 Male Groups

 

 

* Polymorphisms of ABO Genes in Han and Li Nationalities of Hainan Province by Zhou Dai-feng, et al.

Abstract: 目的 研究海南汉、黎族人群中ABO基因DNA多态性及其基因频率分布的特点.方法 应用等位基因特异性聚合酶链反应检测了255例海南汉族人样本DNA和379例海南黎族人样本DNA的ABO血型基因型,根据遗传距离和聚类分析比较海南汉、黎族的ABO血型基因频率与其他群体的差异.确定其在中国地理分布上的位置.结果 用等位基因特异性聚合酶链反应技术可鉴定出6种ABO血型基因型:AA、AB、AO1、BB、BO1、O1O1,其鉴定的ABO基因分型结果 与DNA测序结果 完全符合;在海南汉族人群中O1O1、BO1、AO1、AB、AA、BB基因型的频率分别为34.90%、23.53%、22.75%、6.27%、6.27%和6.27%,A、B、O1等位基因频率分别为20.78%、21.18%和58.04%;在海南黎族人群中O1O1、BO1、AO1、AB、AA、BB基因型的频率分别为30.87%、26.39%、16.09%、13.19%、6.86%和6.60%,A、B、O1等位基因频率分别为21.50%、26.39%和52.11%.根据遗传距离和聚类分析,海南汉族ABO血型分布介于北方和西北各省组与长江流域和西南区组之间,而海南黎族ABO血型分布与我国各省区的ABO血型分布4个组的聚类现象不明显.结论 海南汉、黎族人群ABO血型基因频率分布存在明显的种族和地域的遗传多态性.

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Control Region Polymorphism in Han, Yao, Li, Uygure and Tibetan Groups in China by H. Tang, et al.

Abstract: In order to investigate the polymorphisms of mtDNA in different groups in China, we have sequenced mtDNA control region from 446 unrelated person. The polymorphic sites in Han, Li, Uygure, Tibetan and Yao groups were 269, 316, 159, 117, 141, respectively, and the pairwise difference, hyplotypes, etc. were calculated. The result showed that there were other hypervariable regions besides HVI and HVII. However, the HV III were located at different region in each group.

 

 

* Paternal Genetic Structure of Hainan Aborigines Isolated at the Entrance to East Asia by Dongna Li, et al.

Background: At the southern entrance to East Asia, early population migration has affected most of the Y-chromosome variations of East Asians. Methodology/Principal Findings: To assess the isolated genetic structure of Hainan Island and the original genetic structure at the southern entrance, we studied the Y chromosome diversity of 405 Hainan Island aborigines from all the six populations, who have little influence of the recent mainland population relocations and admixtures. Here we report that haplogroups O1a* and O2a* are dominant among Hainan aborigines. In addition, the frequency of the mainland dominant haplogroup O3 is quite low among these aborigines, indicating that they have lived rather isolated. Clustering analyses suggests that the Hainan aborigines have been segregated since about 20 thousand years ago, after two dominant haplogroups entered East Asia (31 to 36 thousand years ago). Conclusions/Significance: Our results suggest that Hainan aborigines have been isolated at the entrance to East Asia for about 20 thousand years, whose distinctive genetic characteristics could be used as important controls in many population genetic studies.

Clustering of Hainan Aborigines and Other East Asian Ethnic Groups

 

 

Haplogroup O2a (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup O2a (M95) is a descendent branch of Haplogroup O2. Its closest extant phylogenetic relatives are the Haplogroup O2* Y-chromosomes found at a low frequency throughout most of East Eurasia and the Haplogroup O2b Y-chromosomes found at low frequencies among the indigenous populations of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria and at much higher frequencies in Korea and Japan.

Haplogroup O2a is distributed widely in Asia, from southern India to the Altai Mountains and Central Asia in the west, and from Indonesia to northern China and Japan in the east. It is found only at marginally low frequencies of approximately 1% at the periphery of its distribution in southern India, Central Asia, northern China, and Japan, but many populations within the vast intervening territory in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and southern China display a greatly elevated frequency of Haplogroup O2a Y-chromosomes. Patrilines within Haplogroup O2a predominate among the Austro-Asiatic populations of South and Southeast Asia, such as the Khmer of Cambodia and the Khasi of Meghalaya in northeastern India. Some researchers have reported that slightly over half of all men in a composite sample of Austro-Asiatic speakers belonged to Haplogroup O2a. Haplogroup O3 (M122), which attains its peak frequency among the Sino-Tibetan and Hmong-Mien peoples of China and Southeast Asia, and Haplogroup O1a (M119), which predominates among Taiwanese aborigines and many populations of the Philippines, also generally occur among speakers of Austro-Asiatic languages in South China and the Indochinese Peninsula, but usually at much lower frequencies than Haplogroup O2a. The hypothesis that Haplogroup O2a was the major Y-chromosome haplogroup of the proto-Austro-Asiatic population is strengthened by the fact that Haplogroup O2a is the only haplogroup found among many Austro-Asiatic-speaking tribes, such as the Juang of mainland India and the Shompen of the Nicobar Islands.

Haplogroup O2a also has been observed with high frequency in samples of Daic-speaking peoples of Thailand and neighboring areas, which may reflect assimilation of the older Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer populations that have left ample evidence of their presence in the region prior to the immigration of Daic speakers.

Outside of the region in which Austro-Asiatic languages are currently spoken or have a historically attested presence, Haplogroup O2a reaches its highest frequencies among the populations of the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo in western and central Indonesia. Haplogroup O2a has been found to be by far the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among the Balinese, occurring in approximately 58.6% (323/551) of a sample of Balinese men; Haplogroup O1a-M119 and Haplogroup O3-M122, which are typical of Austronesian peoples outside of Malaysia and Indonesia, were observed in only 18.1% (100/551) and 6.9% (38/551) of Balinese men. Haplogroup O2a has also been found to be the most frequently occurring haplogroup among Malay men in Singapore. The reason for its substantial presence in these populations, all of which are Austronesian-speaking, is yet to be elucidated.

Subgroups

The subclades of Haplogroup O2a with their defining mutation, according to the 2006 ISOGG tree:

• O2a (M95) Typical of Austro-Asiatic peoples, Kradai peoples, Malays, Indonesians, and Malagasy, with a moderate distribution throughout South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Central Asia
  • O2a*
  • O2a1 (M88, M111) Frequently found among Hani, She people, Tai peoples, Cambodians, and Vietnamese, with a moderate distribution among Qiang, Hlai, Miao, Yao, Taiwanese aborigines, populations of Borneo, and Han Chinese of Sichuan, Guangxi, and Guangdong
    • O2a1*
    • O2a1a (PK4) Found at low frequency among Pashtuns, Tharus, and tribals of Andhra Pradesh
  • O2a2 (M297)

 

 

Haplogroup O1 (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup O1 (MSY2.2) is a descendent branch of the greater Haplogroup O. The great majority of Y-chromosomes within Haplogroup O1 belong to its subgroup O1a (M119).

Origins: Both Haplogroup O1 and Haplogroup O3 are prototypical Chinese patrilines, and they are believed to have first evolved sometime during the late Pleistocene (Upper Paleolithic) in Southeast Asia. Both O1 and O3 are commonly found among most modern populations of China and Southeast Asia. These two lineages are also presumed to be markers of the Austronesian expansion, probably originating from prehistoric Taiwan or the neighboring southeastern coast of China, when they are found among modern populations of Maritime Southeast Asia or Oceania.

By far the strongest positive correlation between Haplogroup O1 and ethnolinguistic affiliation is that which is observed between this haplogroup and the Austronesians. It is interesting that the peak frequency of Haplogroup O1 is found among the aborigines of Taiwan, precisely the region from which linguists have hypothesized that the Austronesian language family originated. A slightly weaker correlation is observed between Haplogroup O1 and the Han Chinese populations of southern China, as well as between this haplogroup and the Kradai-speaking populations of southern China and Southeast Asia. The distribution of Daic languages in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of China has long been believed, for reasons of traditional linguistic geography, to reflect a recent invasion of Southeast Asia by Daic-speaking populations originating from southeastern China, and the somewhat elevated frequency of Haplogroup O1 among the Daic populations, coupled with a high frequency of Haplogroup O2a, which is a genetic characteristic of the Austro-Asiatic peoples of Southeast Asia, suggests that the genetic signature of the Daic peoples' affinity with populations of southeastern China has been weakened due to extensive assimilation of the earlier Austro-Asiatic residents of the lands which the Daic peoples invaded. Also, it has been noted that Haplogroup O1 lineages among populations of continental Southeast Asia outside of China display a reduced level of diversity when compared with populations of South China and insular Southeast Asia, which may be evidence of a bottleneck associated with the westward migration and settlement of ancestral Daic-speaking populations in Indochina.

Distribution: Haplogroup O1 is generally found wherever its brother haplogroup, Haplogroup O3, is found, although at a frequency much lower than that of Haplogroup O3. A conspicuous exception to this general pattern is presented by the aboriginal populations of Taiwan, among whom Haplogroup O1 generally dominates Haplogroup O3 in frequency. The frequency of Haplogroup O1 has been found to be negatively correlated with latitude, so that, on average, it occurs at higher frequency towards the more southerly parts of its range, but it never attains majority haplogroup status outside of Taiwan. Heightened frequencies of Haplogroup O1 also have been observed in some samples of populations from the Philippines and the eastern-southeastern coast of China. Haplogroup O1a-M119 Y-chromosomes also have been found to occur at low frequency among various populations of Siberia, such as the Nivkhs (one of 17 sampled Y-chromosomes), Ulchi/Nanai (2/53), Yenisey Evenks (1/31), and especially the Buryats living in the Sayan-Baikal uplands of Irkutsk Oblast (6/13).

Frequencies: The frequencies of Haplogroup O1 among various East Asian and Austronesian populations suggest a complex genetic history of the modern Han populations of southern China. Although Haplogroup O1 occurs only at an average frequency of approximately 4% among Han populations of northern China and peoples of southwestern China and Southeast Asia who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, the frequency of this haplogroup among the Han populations of southern China nearly quadruples to about 15%. The frequency of Haplogroup O1 among the Southern Han has been found to be slightly greater than the arithmetic mean of the frequencies of Haplogroup O1 among the Northern Han and a pooled sample of Austronesian populations. This suggests that modern Southern Han populations possess a non-trivial number of male ancestors who were originally affiliated with some Austronesian-related culture, or who at least shared a genetic affinity with many of the ancestors of modern Austronesian peoples.

Subgroups

The subclades of Haplogroup O1 with their defining mutation(s), according to the 2010 ISOGG tree:

• O1 (MSY2.2)
  • O1*
  • O1a (M119) Found frequently in Austronesians, southern Han Chinese, and Tai-Kadai peoples
    • O1a*
    • O1a1 (M307.2/P203.2)
      • O1a1*
      • O1a1a (M101) Observed in one individual from China and another from Kota Kinabalu
    • O1a2 (M50, M103, M110) Occurs among Austronesian peoples of Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Madagascar as well as among some populations of continental Southeast Asia

 

 

Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

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Tai-Kadai Languages

The Tai-Kadai languages, also known as Daic, Kadai, Kradai, or Kra-Dai, are a language family of highly tonal languages found in southern China and Southeast Asia. They include Thai and Lao, the national languages of Thailand and Laos respectively. There are nearly 100 million speakers of these languages in the world. Ethnologue lists 92 languages in this family, with 76 of these languages being in the Kam-Tai branch.

The diversity of the Tai-Kadai languages in southeastern China, especially in Guizhou and Hainan, suggests that this is close to their homeland. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only about a thousand years ago, founding the nations that later became Thailand and Laos in what had been Austroasiatic territory.

The name "Tai-Kadai" comes from an obsolete bifurcation of the family into two branches, Tai and Kadai (all else). Since this Kadai can only be a valid group if it includes Tai, it is sometimes used to refer to the entire family; on the other hand, some references narrow its usage to the Kra branch of the family.

 

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent Sagart

The An Settlement of Taiwan With the MP and TK Migrations

[a]: The pre-Austronesians, from NE China, expand southward along the SE China seaboard in the 5th and early 4th millennia BC: they cultivate rice, foxtail millet, exploit marine resources, practice tooth evulsion. [b]: the Nanri and Pingtan islands, from which the top of Mt Xueshan (3884 m., at center of 200-km radius visibility circle) can be seen, are reached. From there one group crosses to Taiwan c. 3500 BC, while [c] the rest continues expanding in a SW direction towards the Pearl River Delta. [1]: location of earliest An (PAnspeaking) settlements on Taiwan. [2]: location of Pituish, [3] location of Enemish, [4] location of Walu-Siwaish, [5] location of Muish, [6] Tai-Kadai migration, [7] Malayo-Polynesian migration, c. 2000 BC.

 

Enriched Higher An Phylogeny Based on Basic-Lexical and Morphological Innovations (gray area at bottom)

Taxon names are in bold type. To the exception of the NE-Formosan languages Kavalan and Ketagalan, no claim is made that the languages whose names are in the same column (for instance Luilang, Pazeh and Saisiat) form a taxon. Dotted arrows indicate an oversea migration. 'FATK' = Formosan Ancestor of Tai-Kadai; 'FAMP' = 'Formosan Ancestor of Malayo-Polynesian'.

 

Excerpt: The position of Tai-Kadai: The observant reader will have noticed that Table 4 includes two languages named 'FATK' and 'FAMP'. These acronyms means 'Formosan Ancestor of Tai-Kadai' and 'Formosan Ancestor of Malayo-Polynesian' respectively. With respect to the former, the claim is being made that, contrary to common sense, the Tai-Kadai languages are descended from an East Formosan language: in effect, that they are a branch of Austronesian, and specifically, a subgroup of Muic.

The modern Tai-Kadai languages are spoken in parts of south China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma and Assam. Ostapirat (2000)21 distinguishes three branches: Hlai in Hainan, and on the mainland Kam-Tai and Kra, but in a more recent paper (in press), he suggests a different classification, with a northern branch (Kra and Kam-Sui) and a southern branch (Hlai and Tai). The Tai-Kadai languages outside of south-east China and adjacent areas of Vietnam are all within the Tai subgroup, and are very homogeneous. This is due to the historically well-attested expansion of Tai speakers in the late first and early second millennia AD. The area of highest diversity is in the northeast part of the Tai-Kadai domain: in Hainan Island, in northern Vietnam, and in the Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Guizhou. This is presumably where the TK homeland was located (although some of the original diversity must have been lost to Chinese in Guangdong province).

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History of Hainan

Hainan Island was called the Pearl Cliffs (珠崖), Fine Jade Cliffs (瓊崖), and the Fine Jade Land (瓊州). The latter two gave rise to the province's abbreviation, Qióng (琼), referring to the greenery cover on the island.

Hainan first enters written Chinese history in 110 BC, when the Han Dynasty established a military garrison there. The Han people started the movement around that time together with the military and officials to Hainan Island from Mainland China. Among them, there are offspring of those who were banished to Hainan for political reasons. Most of them moved to Hainan Island from places like Guangdong, Fujian and Guangxi in the southern part of Mainland China.

Li people are the original inhabitants of Hainan. They are believed to be the descendants of the ancient Yue tribes of China, who settled on the island more than 3,000 years ago.

The Li ethnic group of China mainly inhabits the nine cities and counties in the middle and southern part of Hainan - the cities of Sanya, Tongza and Dongfang, the Li autonomous counties of Baisha, Lingshui, Ledong, Changjiang, and the 'Li and Miao Autonomous Counties of Qiongzhong and Baoting'. Some others reside elsewhere on Hainan with other ethnic groups in Danzhou, Wanning, Qionghai and Tunchang.

The area inhabited by the Li ethnic group totals 18,700 square kilometers, about 55 percent of the province's total.

In Eastern Wu of the Three Kingdoms Period, Hainan was the Zhuya Commandery (珠崖郡).

Under the Song Dynasty, Hainan came under the control of Guangxi Province, and for the first time large numbers of Han Chinese arrived, settling mostly in the north. Under the Yuan Dynasty (AD 1206-1368) it became an independent province, but was placed under Guangdong Province during the Ming Dynasty in 1370. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, large numbers of Han from Fujian and Guangdong began migrating to Hainan, pushing the Li into the highlands in the southern half of the island. In the eighteenth century, the Li rebelled against the government, which responded by bringing in mercenaries from the Miao people regions of Guizhou Province. Many of the Miao settled on the island and their descendants live in the western highlands to this day.

In 1906, the Chinese Republican leader Sun Yat-sen proposed that Hainan become a separate province.

Hainan was historically part of Guangdong Province and Guangxi Province, being as such, it was the Ch'iung-yai or Qiongya Circuit (瓊崖道) in 1912 (the establishment of the Republic of China). In 1921, it was planned to become a Special Administrative Region (瓊崖特別行政區); in 1944, it became Hainan Special Administrative Region with 16 counties containing the South China Sea Islands.

During the 1920s and 30s, Hainan was a hotbed of Communist activity, especially after a bloody crackdown in Shanghai, the Republic of China in 1927 drove many Communists into hiding. The Communists and the Li natives fought a vigorous guerrilla campaign against the Japanese occupation of Hainan (1939-45), but in retaliation over one third of the male population were killed by the Japanese. Feng Baiju led the Hainan Independent Column of fighters throughout the 1930s and 1940s. After the Japanese surrender in 1945 the Nationalist Party (KMT) re-established control. Hainan was one of the last areas of China controlled by the Republic of China. From March to May 1950, the Landing Operation on Hainan Island captured the island for the Chinese communists. Feng Baiju and his column of guerrilla fighters played an essential role in scouting for the landing operation and coordinated their own offensive from their jungle bases on the island. This allowed the Hainan takeover to be successful where the Jinmen and Dengbu assaults had failed in the previous fall. The takeover was made possible by the presence of a local guerrilla force that was lacking on Jinmen, Dengbu, and Taiwan. Hence, while many observers of the Chinese civil war thought that the fall of Hainan to the Communists would be followed shortly by the fall of Taiwan, the lack of any communist guerrilla force on Taiwan and its sheer distance from the mainland made this impossible, as did the arrival of the US 7th fleet in the Taiwan Strait after the outbreak of the Korean War in June.

On 1 May 1950, under the PRC, the Special Administrative Region became an Administrative Region Office (海南行政区公署), a branch of the Guangdong provincial government. On October 1, 1984, it became the Hainan Administrative Region (海南行政区), with a People's Government, and finally as province separate from Guangdong four years later.

The Communists resumed development of the island along the lines established by the Japanese, but the results were limited by the island's isolation, its humid and typhoon-prone climate, and its continuing reputation as a place of danger and exile by mainland Chinese. With China's shift in economic policy at the end of the 1970s, Hai-nan became a focus of attention.

In 1988, when the island was made a separate province, it was designated a Special Economic Zone in an effort to increase investment.

During the mid-1980s, when Hainan was still part of the Guangdong Province, a fourteen-month episode of marketing zeal by Hainan Special District Administrator Lei Yu put Hainan's pursuit of provincial status under a cloud. It involved the duty-free imports from Hong Kong of 90,000 Japanese-made cars and trucks at a cost of C¥ 4.5 billion (US$ 1.5 billion), and exporting them – with the help of local naval units – to the mainland, making 150% profits. By comparison, only 10,000 vehicles were imported into Hainan since 1950. In addition, it involved further consignments of 2.9 million TV sets, 252,000 videocassette recorders & 122,000 motorcycles. The money was taken from the 1983 central government funds destined for the construction of the island's transportation infrastructure (roads, railways, airports, harbours) over the next ten years.

The central government funds were deemed insufficient by the Hainan authorities for the construction of the island's other infrastructures (water works, power stations, telecommunications, etc.) and had taken a very liberal interpretation of the economic and trade regulations for Hainan and thirteen coastal cities; the regulations did not mention on prohibiting the re-selling of second-hand goods. Some of the proceeds, from unsold units, were later retrieved by the central government to re-finance the special district.

 

 

Satelite Image of the Hainan Island

 

 

Climate

Hainan has a tropical moist monsoonal climate. Its annual temperature change is less than 15 degrees Celsius. The coldest months are January and February when the temperatures drop to 16 to 21 degrees Celsius; the hottest months are July and August, and the temperatures are 25 to 29 degrees Celsius. Except for the mountainous regions in the central part of the island, the daily average temperature in Hainan is above 10 degrees Celsius, and the integrated temperature during the growing season of the crops reaches eight thousand to nine thousand degree Celsius-days. The summer in the north is hot and, for more than 20 days in a year, the temperature can be higher than 35 degrees Celsius. The average annual precipitation is 1500 to 2000 mm and can be as high as 2400 mm in central and eastern areas, and as low as 900 mm in the coastal areas of the southwest. The eastern part of Hainan lies in the path of typhoons, and 70% of the annual precipitation is derived from typhoons and the summer rainy season. Major flooding occurs due to the typhoons and they can cause many problems for the local residents.

 

 

Economy

Hainan's economy is predominantly agricultural, and more than a half of the island's exports are agricultural products. Hainan's elevation to province-level status (1988), however, was accompanied by its designation as China's largest "special economic zone", the intent being to hasten the development of the island's plentiful resources.

Prior to this, the province had a reputation for being a "Wild West" area, largely untouched by industrialisation; even today there are relatively few factories in the province. Tourism plays an important part of Hainan's economy, thanks largely to its tropical beaches and lush forests.

The central government has encouraged foreign investment in Hainan and has allowed the island to rely to a large extent on market forces.

Hainan's industrial development largely has been limited to the processing of its mineral and agricultural products, particularly rubber and iron ore. Since the 1950s, machinery, farm equipment, and textiles have been manufactured in the Haikou area for local consumption. A major constraint on industrial expansion has been an inadequate supply of electricity. Much of the island's generating capacity is hydroelectric, and it is subject to seasonal fluctuations in stream and river flows.

Fishing: Marine products contribute a significant share to the provincial economy. Shrimps, scallops, and pearls are raised in shallow bays and basins for local use and export. Grouper, Spanish mackerel, and tuna constitute the bulk of the catch from the rich offshore fishing grounds.

 

 

Tourism

As Hainan Island is not heavily industrialised, its greenery, together with its beautiful beaches and clean air, make it a popular tourist attraction. The island is accessible through ferry links with Guangdong province, as well as air links. There are two airports, Meilan Airport in Haikou, and Phoenix Airport in Sanya.

In December 2004, the Guangdong-Hainan passenger railway link opened, connecting Guangzhou in Guangdong province on the mainland to Hainan Island. The complete trip, which includes crossing the Qiongzhou Strait by ferry, takes a total of 12 hours. The project cost $583 million US and is expected to greatly enhance Hainan's tourism and economic development. This is important because Hainan currently lags well behind Shenzhen and Zhuhai special economic zones, which border Hong Kong and Macao, respectively.

Hainan Island is often divided into eight regions for tourism purposes: Haikou and area (Haikou, Qiongshan, Ding'an); the Northeast (Wenchang); the Central East Coast (Qionghai, Ding'an); the South East Coast; the South (Sanya); the West Coast (Ledong, Dongfang, Changjiang); the North West (Danzhou, Lingao, Chengmai); and the Central Highlands (Baisha, Qiongzhong, and Wuzhishan/Tongzha).

Haikou is the province's capital and contains interesting historic sites. Also known as Coconut City, Haikou is a major port. The Five Officials Temple (五公祠) consists of five traditional temples and halls that were built in honour of five officials of the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties. These officials were banished to Hainan for periods ranging from 11 days to 11 years for speaking out against what they felt were wrong practices by the Emperors. (It is perhaps significant that the establishment of the Five Officials Temple in the late 19th century coincides with a time when China's territorial integrity was under threat, and that several of the officials honoured here were exiled for espousing aggressive policies on the recapture of the north of China from the Jurchens during the Southern Song dynasty.)

Xiuying Fort Barbette was built in 1891 to defend the southeastern corner of China during the Sino-French War. The Xiuying Fort Barbette covers about a third of an acre. Its five large cannons are still intact and viewable at the site.

The Tomb of Hai Rui (海瑞墓) is a key national cultural protection site. Hai Rui was a compassionate and popular official of Hainanese origins who lived during the Ming Dynasty. He was famous for his lifelong honesty and his willingness to speak out on behalf of local people. In later life, Hai Rui was persecuted and fell out of favour with the emperor. His admirers built the Hai Rui Tomb after his death to commemorate his great works. Construction of the tomb began in 1589.

sanya, a popular tourist destination located in Lingshui County, is a state-protected nature reserve for macaques.

Hainan Island has a number of beaches, hot springs. Some top scenic sites include Yalong bay National Resort; Dadonghai Tourist Resort; Qizhi Shan (Seven Finger Mountain), Guantang Hot Spring Resort, Shishan Volcanic Garden; Wanquan River, Baishi Ridge Scenic Zone and Baihua Ridge.

Other attractions in Hainan include:

The province has initiated a visa-upon-arrival policy for foreign tourist groups from twenty-one countries in 2000, in order to attract visitors. It received 380,000 overseas tourists in 2002.

 

 

Notables

The poet Su Shi (1036-1101) popularized Hainan's isolation and exoticism when he was exiled there under the Song dynasty. The Dongpo Academy was built on the site of the residence where he lived in exile.

Hai Rui (1514-1587) was a famous Chinese official of the Ming dynasty. His name has come down in history as a model of honesty and integrity in office.

The most famous native of Hainan is Chinese-American Methodist minister, Charlie Soong (Sòng Jiāshù), father of the Shanghai born Soong sisters: Soong Ai-ling, wife of H. H. Kung (once China's richest man); Soong Ching-ling, wife of Sun Yat-Sen; and Soong Mei-ling, wife of former ROC President Chiang Kai-shek.

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Charlie Soong

Charles Jones Soong (宋嘉樹) (February 1863, 1864 or 1866 – May 3, 1918), courtesy name Yaoru (耀如, hence his alternate name: Soong Yao-ju), was a Hainanese who first achieved prominence as a missionary and businessman in Shanghai. He was a close friend of Sun Yat-Sen and a key player in the events that led to the Xinhai Revolution in 1911. His children became some of the most prominent people in the history of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China.

Early Life: Charlie Soong was born as Han Jiaozhun (韓教準) in Hainan as the third son of Han Hongyi (韓鴻翼) sometime between 1863 and 1866. At the age of 15 he sailed with his uncle to Boston in the United States and became a migrant worker. After working for his uncle for some time, he left on his own and was soon taken in by a group of Methodist missionaries. Soon thereafter he converted to the Christian faith and was baptized Charlie Jones Soon—Charlie Soon was probably an Anglicized version of his given name Chiao-Shun, but there is more confusion towards from where he got his middle name Jones. It was not until years later that he added the extra letter to his surname, spelling it Soong.

The Methodists arranged for Charlie Soong to live with the industrialist and philanthropist Julian Carr in North Carolina. Carr had been a great contributor to Trinity College (now Duke University) and was subsequently able to get his Chinese protégé into the school in 1880, even though he met none of the qualifications for entry to university. The prospect of having a native Chinese as a missionary in China thrilled some of the pastors around him, and thus the focus of his studies were mastering the English language and study of the bible. One year later, Soong transferred to Vanderbilt University, from which he received a degree in theology in 1885. In 1886 he was sent to Shanghai on a mission after spending almost half of his life to that point abroad.

From Missionary to Revolutionary: Soong's career as a missionary proved to be a short one. In the late 1880s, Charlie had begun to tire of the mission and felt that he could do more for his people if he was not bound to the restrictions and methods that came with working for the church. When he founded his first business—a small printing establishment—he seemingly found it appropriate to resign from preaching. Instead, another society required his time and loyalty. Around this time, Charlie had secretly been initiated into Shanghai’s thriving anti-Manchu resistance movement, more specifically an organization that went by the name of Hung P’ang, or the Red Gang. This organization had its roots in the movements to reinstate the Ming dynasty in the latter part of the 17th century, but had since transformed into a republican revolutionary force.

In 1894, Charlie Soong made the arguably most important connection in his life when he met Sun Yat-Sen at a Sunday service in a Methodist church in Shanghai. The two men were kindred spirits of sorts, sharing their Western education, region of birth, dialect, the Christian faith and a burning ambition and craving for change in China. Perhaps most importantly, they were both members of entwined anti-Manchu triads. They quickly became good friends and Charlie started funding Sun’s campaigns. A political body was set up, and the plan was to connect the triads into a network of opposition. When their first attempt at uprising failed in 1895, Sun fled China, and would not come back until sixteen years later. Charlie had remained incognito during the resistance and deemed it safe to remain in Shanghai, as his name had not yet been connected to the failed coup. In the coming years, Charlie Soong funded Sun Yat-Sen’s travels in search of support and major financial backing.

The Founding of the Soong Family: In the years leading up to the revolution in 1911, Charlie Soong started a family in Shanghai with his wife Ni Kwei-Tseng. The couple had their first child in 1890—a girl whom they named Soong Ai-ling. Their next daughter, Soong Ch'ing-ling, was born in 1893, followed by their first son T. V. Soong a year later. Their last daughter, Soong May-ling came in 1897 and was followed by the brothers T.L. Soong and T.A. Soong.

Charlie intended for all of his children to be educated in the United States, and Ai-Ling was the first to go at the early age of thirteen, after attending an English-language school in Shanghai from the age of five. Ai-Ling became a special student at Wesleyan College in Georgia. All of the three sisters attended Wesleyan, Ching-Ling and May-Ling moving to Georgia in 1907. Ai-Ling graduated in 1909, and moved back to China. Charlie instated her as Sun Yat-Sen’s secretary, in charge of handling his correspondence and of decoding messages to him from the republicans. A few years later in 1911, Sun Yat-Sen was successful in bringing about the Xinhai Revolution, and the Qing Dynasty fell to be replaced by the short-lived presidency of Sun Yat-Sen.

In 1912, Ching-Ling returned to China, just in time to see the republic collapse under the leadership of Yuan Shikai. The connection between Charlie Soong and Sun Yat-Sen was now widely known, and Charlie felt that his family would not be safe in China. In 1913, they fled with Sun Yat-Sen to Tokyo. They remained there until 1916, when Charlie deemed the situation in Shanghai to be safe enough to return.

Dispute with Sun Yat-Sen: While in Tokyo, Soong Ai-Ling had married a wealthy banker, and it was no longer suitable for her to work as Sun Yat-Sen's secretary. Instead, Soong Ch'ing-ling had started this job in 1914 while in Tokyo. The relationship between Ch'ing-ling and Sun soon turned romantic, and when Charlie Soong moved his family back to Shanghai in 1916, they secretly kept in touch. It was however problematic, as Sun Yat-Sen was already married, to pursue this relationship. Thus, Charlie was outraged when Ch'ing-ling asked to go back to Japan to join Sun. When she then defied him and escaped on a boat to Tokyo in the middle of the night, it was enough for Charlie to break all ties with Sun and disown his daughter.

Death: Charlie Soong died on May 3, 1918. The cause was believed to be stomach cancer. Neither Sun Yat-Sen nor the rest of the KMT showed any public mourning, as the feud over Ching-Ling was still fresh in the public memory.

 

The Soong Dynasty by Sterling Seagrave

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Soong Ch'ing-ling

Soong Ch'ing-ling (宋慶齡) (27 January 1893 – 29 May 1981), also known as Madame Sun Yat-sen, was one of the three Soong sisters—who, along with their husbands, were amongst China's most significant political figures of the early 20th century. She was the Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China. She was the first non-royal woman to officially become head of state of China, acting as Co-Chairman of the Republic from 1968 until 1972. She again became head of state in 1981, briefly before her death, as the Honorary President of the People's Republic of China. Soong is sometimes regarded as Asia's first female non-monarchial head of state, although her title of Honorary President of the People's Republic of China was purely ceremonial.

She was born to the wealthy businessman and missionary Charlie Soong in Nanshi (a part of present-day Huangpu District), Shanghai

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Soong May-ling

Soong May-ling or Soong Mei-ling, also known as Madame Chiang Kai-shek (宋美齡; March 5, 1898 – October 23, 2003) was a First Lady of the Republic of China (ROC), the wife of former President Chiang Kai-shek (蔣中正 / 蔣介石). The youngest and the last surviving of the three Soong sisters, she played a prominent role in the politics of the Republic of China and was the sister in law of the leader of the Republic of China preceding her husband, Sun Yat-Sen.

She was born in Hongkou District, Shanghai, China, on March 5, 1898, but some biographies use the year 1897 because Chinese tradition considers everyone to be one year old at birth. She was the third of six children of Charlie Soong, a Hainanese Chinese Methodist minister and businessman. Her siblings were: Oldest sister Ai-ling, middle sister Ching-ling, May-ling herself, then her brothers T. V., T.L., and last T.A.

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