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Michael Chang

 

 

 

Southern "Han"

 

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TEOCHEW

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

The Teochew are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who primarily live in coastal eastern Guangdong in China, and represent one of the three major ethnic groups in the province. The Teochew diaspora can be found almost anywhere in the world, especially Southeast Asia, North America, Australasia and France. The diaspora, at least estimated, contains over 10 million people, which is as much as the population of Chaoshan itself. They speak a language closely related to Hokkien, and their Teochew cuisine is distinctive. The ancestors of the Teochew people have had to move to present-day Chaoshan in order to escape from a series of civil wars at the time from the Central Plains of China during the Jin Dynasty.

Teochew can be romanised in a variety of schemes, and are known in Mandarin as Chaozhou ren and Cantonese as Chiuchao yan. In referring to themselves as ethnic Chinese, Teochew people generally use Tang nang (唐人), literally Tang Dynasty people, as opposed to Han nang (漢人), which means 'Han Dynasty people'. Teochew people of the diaspora would generally use Hua nang (華人) to indicate Chinese heritage in a cultural sense.

Teochew people also commonly refer to each other as ga gi nang (自己人) which means 'our own people.

 

Chaojhou, Pingtung

Chaozhou (潮州) is an urban township in western Pingtung County, Taiwan.

Chaozhou is named for the Chinese city of Chaozhou. According to some historians, settlers from that city landed here in 1724, and thus named this area after their home city.

* 台灣‧屏東縣／潮州鎮

* 台灣之光旅遊體驗網台北- 潮州肉圓

* 屏東潮州金陵街小吃 by backpackers.com.tw

 

 

日治時期台灣閩粵原住民分佈概圖 (潮州人, Teochew in pink)

 

 

Map Showing Cities of Chaochou and Swatow (Shantou)

 

 

潮州人

潮州民系，或稱潮州人，也稱潮汕人（特指潮州和汕頭兩地），是廣東三大民系之一，也是中國南方乃至全球華人界最具影響力的民系之一。

潮州人主要分佈在廣東潮州府地區，包括汕頭、潮州、揭陽，以及海外華人聚居地。國內潮人約一千萬，海外潮州人約二千到三千萬。 另外：

潮州人所說的話，彼此之間能溝通。現今的潮州人由於他們居住的地方是屬於廣東省境內，故早已沒有閩南民系或福佬民系的強烈認同了，但他們的潮州人的認同卻是十分強烈的。潮語（即俗稱潮州話）是閩南語的分支也是代表。旅居海外的潮州華僑、華人也很多，集中最多的地方是泰國曼谷的唐人街，在這裡，幾乎處處可通潮州話。

* 從難民到逐步融入主流社會的法國潮州人

* 自稱到十字路口　大馬潮州人尋根

* 刻苦耐勞異邦創業潮州人泰國顯風流

* 新加坡的潮州人

 

 

Chaozhou

Chaozhou

Shantou

Jieyang

Together, Chaozhou and the nearby cities of Shantou and Jieyang in Guangdong are called Chaoshan (潮汕)

Chaozhou (潮州; literally "Tide Prefecture"; usually spelled Chiu Chow in the US and Hong Kong), also widely known by its Postal map spelling Teochew, is a prefecture-level city in eastern Guangdong province, People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the south, Jieyang to the southwest, Meizhou to the northwest, the province of Fujian to the east, and the South China Sea to the southeast.

Together, Chaozhou and the nearby cities of Shantou and Jieyang are called Chaoshan. The name was used for the joint political-administrative area which encompassed the three cities from 1958 until 1983.

Chaozhou is famously known as one of the great cultural centres in the Lingnan region of China. Chaozhou culture is known worldwide as a unique part of world heritage. Down through history, the Chaozhou region, was able to flourish and thrive as a prosperous cultural centre enabling the nourishing of a unique and distinctive character epitomized in the Chaozhou Dialect, Chaozhou opera, Chaozhou cuisine, Chaozhou Ganghu tea, Chaozhou music, and Chaozhou embroidery.

Chaozhou Dialect (潮州話), by which the Chaozhou culture conveys, is considered as one of the oldest Chinese dialects for it preserves many elegant and refined features from ancient Chinese that have been lost in some of the other modern dialects of Chinese. It is spoken by about 10 million people in local Chaozhou and approximately 2-5 million overseas.

Chaozhou opera (潮劇) is a traditional art form which has a history of more than 500 years and is now loved by 20 million Chaozhou natives in over 20 countries and regions. Based on the local folk dances and ballads, Chaozhou opera has formed its own style under the influence of Nanxi Opera. Nanxi is one of the oldest Chinese operas that originated in the Song Dynasty. Its tunes are graceful and pleasant, full of local color. The old form of choral accompaniment still remains its special features. Clowns and females are the most distinctive characters in a Chaozhou opera, and fan-playing and acrobatic skills are more prominent than in other types of performances.

Gongfu tea (工夫茶), the 'espresso' of Chinese teas with a formidable kick, which was first sipped back in the Song Dynasty, is still flourishing and remains an important part of social etiquette in Chaozhou. If you visit a family, you can be sure of at least one round of Ganghu tea. Though it tastes bitter when it first reaches your mouth, it is the lingering aftertaste that makes Ganghu tea probably the most charming tea culture in China. Drinking Ganghu tea is in fact a process of aesthetics rather than a solution to thirst.

At the local teahouse, tea service is often accompanied with Chaozhou music (潮州音樂). String music, the gong and drum music, the ancient music of set flutes are the traditional play forms of Chaozhou music. Chaozhou string music is made up of mostly plucked and bowed string instruments, and on some occasions, wind instruments are used. The most characteristic instruments are the rihin (二弦), tihu (提胡) and yahu (all two-stringed bowed lutes), the sanxian, pipa, ruan, guzheng, and yangqin. The number of instruments and performers in the ensemble is flexible and depends on the availability of instruments and musicians to play them - but to have an even and balanced texture only one of each instrument is preferred. Chaozhou drum music includes the big drum and gong, the small drum and gong, the dizi set drum and dong and su drum and gong ensembles. The current Chaozhou drum music is said to be similar to the form of the Drum and Wind Music of the Han and Tang Dynasties. Chaozhou guzheng (潮州古筝) is also regarded a major genre of Southern style of Chinese guzheng.

Jieyang (揭阳) is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong province. The Teochew dialect is predominantly spoken in this region. The Hakka dialect, however, is also used by Hakka people in Jiexi County. During 1930s many Jieyang people emigrated to Pontianak, Indonesia and Thailand to seek better fortune.

Shantou (汕頭; Swatow), a city significant in 19th-century Chinese history as one of the treaty ports established for Western trade and contact

Shantou was a fishing village part of Tuojiang City (鮀江都), Jieyang District (揭陽縣) during the Song Dynasty. It came to be Xialing (廈嶺) during the Yuan Dynasty. In 1563, Shantou was a part of Chenghai District (澄海縣) in Chao Prefecture (Chaozhou). As early as 1574, Shantou had been called Shashan Ping (沙汕坪). In the seventeenth century, a cannon platform called Shashan Toupaotai (沙汕頭炮臺) was made here, and the placename later was shortened to "Shantou". Locally it has been referred to as Kialat.

Connecting to Shantou across the Queshi Bridge is Queshi (礐石) which had been known by the local people through the 19th century as Kakchio. It was the main site for the American and British Consulates. Today the area is a scenic park but some of the structures are somewhat preserved from its earlier history.

Shantou is one of the most densely populated regions in China. Former Chaoyang City was China's most populous county-level administrative region, with 2.4 million inhabitants.

Most residents are ethnically Teochew. There are also Hakka, popularly known as Half-Hakka (半山客), living mainly in Chaoyang District (潮陽區) and Chaonan District (潮南區), although they speak Teochew on a daily basis and practise Teochew culture.

 

 

Swatow Ware from the Binh Thuan Wreck

Swatow ware or Swatow is a common name for a group of mainly late Ming Dynasty export porcelain from China intended for the South East Asian market.

One of the probable reasons for this trade developing out of Swatow, or present-day Shantou, has to do with the disproportionately large numbers of ethnic Chinese migrating to South East Asia from Guangdong and neighboring Fujian Province. Their presence in South East Asia is still very much palpable, especially in Singapore and the Malaysian cities of Penang and Malacca.

The name Swatow is rendered in Teochew, or Chao Zhou dialect, belonging to a relatively small group of ethnic Chinese that reside within present-day Canton, or Guang Dong Province. Linguistically though, the dialect has more in common with the dialect of Fujian Province. Swatow literally means: mountain head; head of the mountain.

The name may be claimed to be misleading as the exact location of the kilns are as yet largely unidentified. However, they are generally thought to be located in the vicinity of what was formerly known as the port of Swatow (now Shantou) on the northern coast of the Guangdong region.

Swatow ware is generally coarse, crudely potted and often under fired. Decoration in blue and white is by far the most common, although many polychrome wares, mainly with iron red and green overglaze decorations, are known.

 

Chinese Trade Ceramics for Southeast Asia, I-XVII Centuries: Collection of Ambassador and Mrs. Charles Muller by Monique Crick

 

 

 

 

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Guangdong

Guangdong (廣東) is a province on the southern coast of China. The province is also known by an alternative English name, the Canton Province.

"Guang" itself means "expanse" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. "Guangdong" and neighboring Guangxi literally mean "expanse east" and "expanse west". Together, Guangdong and Guangxi are called the "Dual-Guangs" (兩廣). The modern abbreviation 粵/粤 (Yue) is related to the Hundred Yue (百越), a collective name for various peoples that lived in Guangdong and other areas in ancient times.

History of Guangdong: Guangdong was far away from the center of ancient Chinese civilization in the north China plain. It was populated by peoples collectively known as the Hundred Yue, who may have been Kradai and related to the Zhuang people in modern Guangxi.

Chinese administration in the region began with the Qin Dynasty. After establishing the first unified Chinese empire, the Qin expanded southwards and set up Nanhai Commandery at Panyu, near what is now part of Guangzhou. It used to be independent as Nanyue between the fall of Qin and the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. The Han Dynasty administered Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam as Jiao Province. Under the Wu Kingdom of the Three Kingdoms period, Guangdong was made its own province, the Guang Province, in 226.

As time passed, the demographics of what is now Guangdong slowly shifted to (Han) Chinese-dominance, especially during several periods of massive migration from the north during periods of political turmoil and/or nomadic incursions from the fall of the Han Dynasty onwards. For example, internal strife in northern China following the rebellion of An Lushan resulted in a 75% increase in the population of Guangzhou prefecture between 740s-750s and 800s-810s. As more migrants arrived, the local population was gradually assimilated to Han Chinese culture, or displaced.

Together with Guangxi, Guangdong was made part of Lingnan Circuit (political division Circuit), or Mountain-South Circuit, in 627 during the Tang Dynasty. The Guangdong part of Lingnan Circuit was renamed Guangnan East Circuit guǎng nán dōng lù in 971 during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). "Guangnan East" is the source of "Guangdong".

As Mongols from the north engaged in their conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song Dynasty retreated southwards, eventually ending up in today's Guangdong. The Battle of Yamen 1279 in Guangdong marked the end of the Southern Song Dynasty (960-1279).

During the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, Guangdong was a part of Jiangxi. Its present name, "Guangdong Province" was given in early Ming Dynasty.

Since the 16th century, Guangdong has had extensive trade links with the rest of the world. European merchants coming northwards via the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea, particularly the Portuguese and British, traded extensively through Guangzhou. Macau, on the southern coast of Guangdong, was the first European settlement in China since 1557. It was the opium trade through Guangzhou that triggered the Opium Wars, opening an era of foreign incursion and intervention in China. In addition to Macau, which was then a Portuguese colony, Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and Kwang-Chou-Wan to the French.

In the 19th century, Guangdong was also the major port of exit for labourers to Southeast Asia and the West, i.e. United States and Canada. As a result, many overseas Chinese communities have their origins in Guangdong. The Cantonese language therefore has proportionately more speakers among overseas Chinese people than mainland Chinese. In the US, there is a large number of Chinese who are descendants of immigrants from the otherwise unremarkable Guangdong region of Taishan (Toisan in Cantonese), who speak a distinctive dialect of Cantonese called Taishanese (or Toishanese).

During the 1850s, the first revolt of the Taiping Rebellion by the Hakka people took place in Guangdong. Because of direct contact with the West, Guangdong was the center of anti-Manchu and anti-imperialist activity. The generally acknowledged founder of modern China, Sun Yat-Sen, was from Guangdong.

Guangdong is also the ancestral home of large numbers of overseas Chinese. Most of the railroad laborers in Canada, Western United States and Panama in the 19th century came from Guangdong. Emigration in recent years has slowed with economic prosperity, but this province is still a major source of immigrants to North America and elsewhere in the world.

The majority of the province's population is Han Chinese. There is a small Yao population in the north. Other smaller minority groups include She, Miao, Li, and Zhuang.

Within the Han Chinese, the largest group in Guangdong are the Cantonese people. Two other major groups are the Hakka people in Meizhou and the Teochew people in Chaozhou.

 

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Teochew Dialect

The Chaozhou language, variably spelled Teochiu, Tiuchiu, Tiochiu, or Diojiu, but mostly commonly referred to in English as Teochew, is a dialect of the Southern Min Chinese language, spoken in the Chaoshan (潮汕) region of eastern Guangdong.

The Chaozhou language preserves many Ancient Chinese archaic pronunciations and vocabulary.

Classification: Chaozhou is a member of the Southern Min or Min Nan dialect group, which in turn constitutes one of the seven major dialect groups of the Sinitic language family. Like other varieties of Chinese, people have not yet agreed on whether Chaozhou should be treated as a language or a dialect. However, apart from the political perspective of this, from a purely linguistic point of view, Chaozhou (or the Southern Min Language at large) should be a language in its own right since it is mutually unintelligible with other "dialect groups" of China. According to Glossika, Chaozhou has an overall 50.4% of mutual intelligibility with the Xiamen dialect, 44.3% with Mandarin and 43.5% with Cantonese.

Nevertheless, Chaozhou is mutually intelligible with some other Southern Min Languages, notably the dialects of Zhangzhou (漳州) and Quanzhou (泉州) probably because of their proximity. Even within the Chaozhou varieties, there is substantial variation in phonology between different regions of Chaoshan and between different Chaozhou communities overseas.

The Chaozhou languages, in terms of their closeness, can be roughly divided into 3 sub-groups:

1) Chaozhou sub-group, including Chaozhou (潮州), Shantou (汕頭), Jieyang (揭陽), Chenghai (澄海), Nanao (南澳) and Raoping (饒平),

2) Chaopu sub-group, including Chaoyang (潮陽), Puning (普寧), Huilai (惠來), and

3) Luhai (陸海) sub-group, including Shanwei (汕尾), Lufeng (陸豐) and Haifeng (海豐)

History and Geography: Modern Chaozhou evolved from the more archaic Southern Min Language. Between the 9th and the 15th century, a group of Min people migrated south from Fujian to the coastal region of eastern Guangdong known as Chaoshan (潮汕). This migration was most likely due in part to over-population in Fujian.

Due to geographical isolation from Fujian, Chaozhou evolved into a separate dialect.

As mentioned above, the Chaoshan region where Chaozhou is spoken includes the cities of Chaozhou, Shantou, which are jointly the source of the name, as well as Jieyang, Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai, Nanao, Lufeng, Haifeng, Shanwei and Huidong. Parts of the Hakka-speaking region, like Jiexi, Dabu (大埔) and Fengshun (豐順) are also Chaozhou-speaking.

Chaoshan was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia during the 18th–20th centuries, forming one of the larger dialect groups among the Overseas Chinese. As a result, Chaozhou is now spoken in many regions outside of Chaoshan. In particular, the Chaozhou people settled in significant numbers in Thailand and Cambodia, where they form the largest Chinese dialect group. They constitute a significant minority in Hong Kong, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (especially in Riau, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Kalimantan, in Pontianak and Ketapang). Chaozhou speakers also live in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe, a result of both direct emigration from Chaoshan to these nations and secondary emigration from Southeast Asia.

However, as the world globalises, the language is losing popularity among the native speakers. In Singapore, due to common culture, and influences from the media and government, Singaporean Chinese youths whose native language is Chaozhou are either converting to English, Standard Mandarin or Hokkien (with which it shares a certain degree of mutual intelligibility). Chaozhou remains the native language of many Chinese people in Singapore - Chaozhou people are the second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the Hokkien - although Mandarin is gradually supplanting Chaozhou as their mother tongue, especially among the younger generations.

 

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* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Abstract: Hakka and Chaoshanese are two unique Han populations residing in southern China but with northern Han (NH) cultural traditions and linguistic influences. Although most of historical records indicate that both populations migrated from northern China in the last two thousand years, no consensus on their origins has been reached so far. To shed more light on the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese, mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 170 Hakka from Meizhou and 102 Chaoshanese from Chaoshan area, Guangdong Province, were analyzed. Our results show that some southern Chinese predominant haplogroups, e.g. B, F, and M7, have relatively high frequencies in both populations. Although median network analyses show that Hakka/Chaoshanese share some haplotypes with NH, interpopulation comparison reveals that both populations show closer affinity with southern Han (SH) populations than with NH. In consideration of previous results from nuclear gene (including Y chromosome) research, it is likely that matrilineal landscapes of both Hakka and Chaoshanese have largely been shaped by the local people during their migration southward and/or later colonization in southern China, and factors such as cultural assimilation, patrilocality, and even sex-bias in the immigrants might have played important roles during the process.

 

* mtDNA Evidence: Genetic background associated with related populations at high risk for esophageal cancer between Chaoshan and Taihang Mountain areas in China by Xiao-Yun Li, et al.

Abstract: There are three major geographic regions in China known for their high incidences of esophageal cancer (EC): the Taihang Mountain range of north-central China, the Minnan area of Fujian province, and the Chaoshan plain of Guangdong province. Historically, waves of great population migrations from north-central China through coastal Fujian to the Chaoshan plain were recorded. To study the genetic relationship among the related EC high-risk populations, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups based on 30 EC patients from Chaoshan and used control samples from the high-risk populations, including 48, 73, and 89 subjects from the Taihang, Fujian, and Chaoshan areas, respectively. The principal component of all haplogroups, correlation analysis of haplogroup frequency distributions between populations, and haplogroup D network analysis showed that compared with other Chinese populations, populations in the three studied areas are genetically related. The highest haplogroup frequency shared by all studied populations was haplogroup D, with much higher frequency in the Chaoshan area EC patients. The majority of haplogroup D individuals among the Chaoshan area EC patients belonged to subhaplogroups D4a and D5a, with the total frequency of these two haplogroups significantly higher than that in the high-risk population in the same area (χ2 = 9.017, p < 0.01). In conclusion, EC high-risk populations in these three areas share a similar matrilineal genetic background, and D4a and D5a might be candidate genetic markers for screening populations susceptible to EC in the Chaoshan area. Ours is the first report to show the association between mtDNA haplogroups (D4a and D5a) and esophageal cancer.

 

The Loess Plateau is shaded

The Taihang Mountains (太行山) are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei provinces. The range extends over 400 km from north to south and has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 meters. The principal peak is Xiao Wutaishan (2,882 metres). Cangyan Shan in Hebei forms the eastern tip of the Taihang range.

The name of Shanxi Province (山西), meaning "west of the mountains", derives from its location west of the Taihang Mountains, as does the name of Shandong Province ( 山東; east of the mountains).

 

 

* Genetic Link Between Chaoshan and Other Chinese Han Populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Abstract: The genetic polymorphism of HLA-A and HLA-B loci was investigated in 505 Chaoshanese using PCR-SSP method. Among the HLA-A alleles detected, A*11 (35.64%) was most frequent, followed by A*02 (31.78%). Of 34 HLA-B alleles tested, 30 were observed, in which B*60 (21.68%), B*46 (14.46%), and B*58 (10.69%) were highly predominant. Comparison was made with other nine Chinese Han ethnic groups covering the Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The high frequent alleles found in Chaoshanese were also common in other Chinese groups compared though the frequency levels varied from group to group. The phylogenic tree analysis based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of all the 10 Chinese ethnic groups revealed that Chaoshanese, while clustering in general with the southern China-related Han Chinese, had the highest affinity to the Mainland Minnanese, but separated distinctively from the northern Han Chinese. The study, however, was yet to confirm the hypothesis of the Central Plains Han origin of Chaoshanese. Interestingly, the alleles (B*46, B*38, and B*58) and the related haplotypes (A*02-B*46 and A*33-B*58) that are positively associated with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), a disease prevailing predominantly among southern Chinese, were always at much higher frequencies among southern Chinese than among northern Chinese, whereas A*31 and B*13, the two alleles with highly protective effects for NPC, and the associated haplotype A*30-B*13 were predominantly high in northern Chinese. The different genetic background between northern and southern China may explain, at least partially, the prevalence of NPC among southern Chinese.

 

Neighbor-Joining Tree

 

Neighbor-joining tree constructed by Nei’s genetic distance based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of Chaoshan and the other nine Chinese Han populations. Chaoshan clusters closely with the Mainland Minnan and the Mainland Hakka. All southern China-related groups in general cluster together and are separated from the China North group with the China Middle standing in between.

 

 

Min Nan

The Southern Min language, or Min Nan, ("Southern Fujian" language) refers to a family of Chinese dialects which are spoken in southern Fujian and neighboring areas, and by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora. In common parlance, Southern Min usually refers to the Hokkien, in particular the Amoy and Taiwanese. Amoy and Taiwanese are both combinations of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The Southern Min family also includes Teochew and Hainanese. Teochew has limited mutual intelligibilty with the Amoy. However, Hainanese is generally not considered to be mutually intelligible with any other Southern Min variants.

Southern Min forms part of the Min language group, alongside several other divisions. The Min languages/dialects are part of the Chinese language group, itself a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Southern Min is not mutually intelligible with Eastern Min, Cantonese, or Mandarin. As with other varieties of Chinese, there is a political dispute as to whether the Southern Min language should be called a language or a dialect. (See Identification of the varieties of Chinese for greater detail.)

Geographic Distribution: Southern Min is spoken in the southern part of Fujian province, three southeastern counties of Zhejiang province, the Zhoushan archipelago off Ningbo in Zhejiang, and the eastern part of Guangdong province (Chaoshan region). The Qiong Wen variant spoken in the Leizhou peninsula of Guangdong province, as well as Hainan province, which is not mutually intelligible with standard Minnan or Teochew, is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate.

A form of Southern Min akin to that spoken in southern Fujian is also spoken in Taiwan, where it has the native name of Tâi-oân-oē or Hō-ló-oē. The (sub)ethnic group for which Southern Min is considered a native language is known as the Holo (Hō-ló) or Hoklo, the main ethnicity of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is generally true though not absolute, as some Hoklo have very limited proficiency in Southern Min while some non-Hoklos speak Southern Min fluently.

There are many Southern Min speakers also among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. Many ethnic Chinese emigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian, and brought the language to what is now Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies) and present day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly Malaya and the British Straits Settlements). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as Hokkien, Hokkienese, Fukien or Fookien in Southeast Asia, and is very much like Taiwanese. Many Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese also originated in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong province and speak Teochew, the variant of Southern Min from that region. Southern Min is reportedly the native language of up to 98.5% of the community of ethnic Chinese in the Philippines, among whom it is also known as Lan-nang or Lán-lâng-oē ("Our people’s language"). Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore with the largest being Hoklos and the second largest being the Teochews.

Comparison: Xiamen speech is a hybrid of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Taiwanese is also a hybrid of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Taiwanese in northern Taiwan tends to be based on Quanzhou speech, whereas the Taiwanese spoken in southern Taiwan tends to be based on Zhangzhou speech. There are minor variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The grammar is basically the same. Additionally, Taiwanese includes several dozen loanwords from Japanese. In contrast, Teochew speech is significantly different from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech in both pronunciation and vocabulary.

Mutual Intelligibility

 

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HLA-A31

HLA-A31 (A31) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group. This group currently is dominated by A*3101. A31 and A*31 are almost synonymous in meaning. A31 is a split antigen of the broad antigen serotype A19. A31 is a sister serotype of A29, A30, A32, A33, and A74.

A31 is more common in South and Central America.

A31 Examination of A31 haplotypes reveal a probably connection across northern Eurasia during the prehistoric period. Frequencies of the more 'tale-tell' haplotypes (A31-B60, B61, and B62) fall from NE to SW Europe. Other haplotypes appears to have spread from the Middle East (A31-B51 and A31-B35)..

 

HLA A31 Haplotype Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
A31-B35 (A*310102:Cw*0401:B*3501)
Lakota Souix (USA)	4.1
Indig American (USA)	3.7
Mestizo (Guad. Mexico)	1.5
Jews (England)	1.3
Tibetan	1.1
Italian	0.6
Japanese	0.5
French	0.5
Choushan (China)	0.4
German	0.3
A31-B51 (A*310102:B*5101)
Ainu (Hokkaido Japan)	8.9
Indig. Brazil	5.8
Orochon (Russia)	5.3
Indig American (USA)	4.3
Tibetan	3.3
Inner Mongolian	3.0
Japanese	3.0
Portuguese	1.6
Korean	1.2
Italian	0.9
French	0.5
German	0.3
Choushan (China)	0.2
A31-B60 (A*310102:Cw*0304:B*4001)
Lusaka (Zambia)	2.3
Yakuts (Russia)	2.0
Irish	0.7
Choushan (China)	0.7
Japan	0.6
Dutch	0.6
German	0.4
A31-B62 (A*310102:B*1501)
Nivkhi (Sakalin, Russia)	12.5
Yakut (Russia)	5.5
Indig. Brazil	4.1
Manchu	1.1
Japan	0.4
German	0.2
Choushan (China)	0.2

 

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Peranakan

Multichrome enamel porcelain tea tray with a traditional Peranakan fenghuang (Chinese phoenix) motif, c. 18th century

Peranakan and Baba-Nyonya (峇峇娘惹) are terms used for the descendants of the very early immigrants to the Nusantara region, including both the British Straits Settlements of Malaya and the Dutch-controlled island of Java among other places, who have partially adopted Malay customs in an effort (chronological adaptation) to be assimilated into the local communities. While the term Peranakan is most commonly used for those of Chinese descent, whose are also known as Straits Chinese (土生華人; named after the Straits Settlements), there are also other, comparatively small Peranakan communities, such as Indian Hindu Peranakans (Chitty), Indian Muslim Peranakans (Jawi Pekan) and Eurasian Peranakans (Kristang).

In both Malay and Indonesian, 'Peranakan' means 'descendants'. Babas refer to the male descendants and the Nyonyas the female. The word nyonya (also commonly spelled nonya) may originate from the Portuguese word dona, which means 'lady'. The word Peranakan is also used to describe Chinese Indonesians.

Most Peranakan are of Hoklo (Hokkien) ancestry, although a sizable number are of Teochew or Cantonese descent. Originally, the Peranakan were part Chinese, part Malay, and part descended from the original inhabitants of Princess Hang Li Po of Malacca. Written records from the 19th and early 20th centuries show that Peranakan men usually took brides from within the local Peranakan community. Peranakan families also frequently imported brides from China and sent their daughters to China to find husbands.

The language of the Peranakans, Baba Malay (Bahasa Melayu Baba), is a dialect of the Malay language (Bahasa Melayu), which contains many Hokkien words. It is a dying language, and its contemporary use is mainly limited to members of the older generation. English has now replaced Baba as the main language spoken at home amongst the younger generation.

History: In the 15th century, the city states of the Malay Peninsula often paid tribute to various kingdoms such as the kingdoms of China and Siam. Close relations with China were established in the early 15th century, during the reign of Parameswara, when Admiral Zheng He (Cheng Ho), a Muslim Chinese, visited Malacca. According to traditional accounts, in 1459 CE, the Emperor of China sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to the Sultan of Malacca as a token of appreciation for his tribute. The royalty and servants who accompanied the princess initially settled in Bukit Cina and eventually grew into a class of straits-born Chinese known as the Peranakan. The Peranakan retained most of their ethnic and religious origins (ancestor worship), but assimilated the language and culture of the Malays. They developed a unique culture and distinct foods. Numerous sources claim that the early Peranakan inter-married with the local Malay population; this might derive from the fact that some of the servants who settled in Bukit Cina that travelled to Malacca with the Admiral from Yunnan were Muslim Chinese. However, the general lack of physical resemblance has led many experts to believe that the Peranakan Chinese ethnicity has hardly diluted. Some Peranakan distinguish between Peranakan-Baba (those Peranakan with part Malay ancestry) from Peranakan (those without any Malay ancestry). The Peranakan often sent their sons and daughters to China to look for spouses. Also, the religion of the local Malay population was Islam which forbids inter-marriage with other religions without conversion first. In the early 1800s, new Chinese immigrants to the Straits Settlements bolstered the Peranakan population.

Over the centuries, the Peranakans have evolved a unique culture that maintains many Chinese traditions, such as celebrating the Lunar New Year and the Lantern Festival, while adopting the customs of the land they settled in, as well as those of their successive colonial rulers. There are traces of Portuguese, Dutch, British, Malay and Indonesian influences in Baba culture.

By the middle of the twentieth century, most Peranakan were English educated, as a result of the British colonisation of Malaya, and the natural propensity of these people who were able to easily embrace new cultures. Because the Peranakans readily embraced English culture and education, administrative and civil service posts were often filled by prominent Straits Chinese. The interaction with the British also caused many in the community to convert to Christianity. The Peranakan community thereby became very influential in Malacca and Singapore and were known also as the King's Chinese due to their perceived loyalty to the British Crown. Because of the interaction of the different cultures and languages that Peranakans had, most Peranakans were (and still are) trilingual, being able to converse with Chinese, Malays and the British. Common vocations were as merchants, traders, and general intermediaries between China, Malaya and the West; the latter was especially valued by the British, since the Babas also enjoyed good relations with the Malay community and served as advisors to the royal Malay courts. In fact the term "Baba" is an honorific term in Malay; probably derived from Hindi/Sanskrit [Baba: literally means grandfather or father, and is used as a term of reverence and affection for an elderly gentleman].

Culture: Historical and cultural items from the Baba culture are displayed in cultural establishments on Heeren Street, Jonker Street and other streets in the same neighbourhood in Malacca and in Penang in Malaysia, and at the Peranakan Museum in Singapore. There one can find museums displaying furniture, food stuff, and even traditional clothes of the Baba and Nonya. There are also a small number of "Nyonya" restaurants in Singapore, Penang, Malacca, and the West. Free weekly street shows featuring Baba performances, and traditional and pop Chinese cultural performances are found in Jonker Street in Malacca (Melaka). The shows are part of the night market scene, and are usually crowded with shoppers, both local and foreign.

The Peranakans were partially assimilated into the Malay culture (especially in food, dress, and language), while retaining some Chinese traditions (religion, name, and ethnic identity), thereby creating a fusion culture of their own. For instance, from their Malay influence, a unique "Nyonya" cuisine has developed using the spices of Malay cuisine (examples are Chicken Kapitan, a dry chicken curry, and Inchi Kabin, a Nyonya version of fried chicken). The women (Nyonyas) have taken to wearing the baju kebaya (a Malay dress, seen most notably as the uniform of Malaysia and Singapore Airlines' female flight attendants), and beaded slippers called Kasut Manek. Traditionally these exquisitely-crafted footwears were typically hand-made, and worn by Nonyas. Making kasut maneks required much patience, as in the past they are strung, beaded and sewn onto canvas with tiny facetted glass beads from Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic). In modern times, glass beads from Japan are preferred. Traditional kasut manek design often have European floral subjects, with colours influenced by the hues of Peranakan porcelain and batik sarongs. They were made onto flats or bedroom slippers. But from the 1930s, modern shapes became popular and heels were added.

Proposals of marriage were made by a gift of a "pinangan", a 2-tiered lacquered basket to the intended bride's parents brought by a go-between person who will speak on behalf of the suitor. However, most of the Peranakans are not Muslim, and have retained the traditions of ancestor worship of the Chinese; though some converted to Christianity. The wedding ceremony of the Peranakan is largely based on Chinese tradition, and is one of the most colorful and fascinating wedding ceremonies in Malaysia and Singapore. At weddings, the Dondang Sayang, a form of extempore rhyming song in Malay, sung and danced by guests at the wedding party was a highlight. Someone would start on a romantic theme which will be carried on by others, each taking the floor in turn slowly dancing in slow gyrations as they sang, It required quick wit and repartee and often gave rise to laughter and applause when a particularly clever phrase was sung. The melodic accents of the Baba-Nonya and their quaint turns of phrase lend to the charm of this performance.

Peranakan culture is disappearing. Without colonial British support for their perceived racial neutrality, government policies in both countries following independence from the British have resulted in the assimilation of Peranakans back into mainstream Chinese culture. In Singapore, the Peranakans are classified as ethnically Chinese, so they receive formal instruction in Mandarin Chinese as a second language (in accordance with the "Mother Tongue Policy") instead of Malay. In Malaysia, the standardization of Malay as Bahasa Melayu — required for all ethnic groups — has led to a disappearance of the unique characteristics of Baba Malay.

The migration of some Peranakan families, particularly the well-to-do ones, has led to a small Peranakan diaspora in neighbouring countries, from Vietnam to Australia. However, these communities are very small, and with the increasing use of the various languages in their respective countries, the use of Peranakan Malay or Baba Malay will be diluted.

 

The Straits Chinese: A Cultural History by Khoo Joo Ee

 

 

 

The Nyonya Kebaya: A Century of Straits Chinese Costume by Datin Seri

 

 

 

Straits Chinese House Domestic by Peter Lee

 

 

 

Peranakan Chinese Porcelain: Vibrant Festive Ware of the Straits Chinese by Kee Ming-Yuet

 

 

 

 

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Teochew Cuisine

Chiuchow cuisine, Teochew cuisine or Chaozhou cuisine or Chaoshan cuisine (潮州菜) originates from Chaoshan, a region of China in the easternmost area of the Guangdong Province. However, Chaozhou cuisine is closer to Fujian cuisine and even shares many of the same dishes. This is likely due to its neighboring location and also the closely related culture. Chaoshan emcompasses the prefecture-level cities of Chaozhou, Shantou and Jieyang. The region's cuisine is often mistakenly labelled as "Cantonese cuisine".

Chaozhou cuisine is particularly well known for its seafood and vegetarian dishes and is commonly regarded as being healthy. Its use of flavoring is much less heavy-handed than most other Chinese cuisines and depends much on the freshness and quality of the ingredients for taste and flavor. As a delicate cuisine, oil is not often used in large quantities and there is a relatively heavy emphasis on poaching, steaming and braising. Chaozhou cuisine is also known for serving rice soup (潮州糜 or mue) in addition to steamed rice or noodles with meals. The Chaozhou mue is rather different from Cantonese porridge or congee. The former is very watery with the rice sitting loosely at the bottom of the bowl.

Authentic Chaozhou restaurants serve very strong Oolong tea called Tieguanyin in very tiny cups before and after the meal. This is Gongfu cha and is a very strong tea which has a bittersweet taste, called gam gam (甘甘).

A condiment that is commonly associated with Chaozhou cuisine is Shacha sauce. This popular paste is also used in Fujian and Taiwanese cuisine. It is made from soybean oil, garlic, shallots, chilis, brill fish, and dried shrimp. The paste has a savory and slightly spicy taste. As an ingredient, it has multiple uses:

Chaozhou chefs often use a special stock called shang tang (上湯). This stock remains on the stove and is continuously replenished. One Hong Kong chef allegedly has used the same shang tang for over fifty years. You will see this stock on Chaozhou TV in their cooking programmes, even today.

There is a famous feast in Chaozhou cuisine / banquet called "jiat dot" (食桌) which literally means "food table". A myriad dishes are often served, which include shark fins soup, bird's nest soup, lobster, steam fish and braised goose.

Chaozhou chefs pride themselves on their skill in vegetable carving, and carved vegetables are used as garnishes on cold dishes and on the banquet table.

Chaozhou is also known for a late night dinner called "Da Leng" (打冷). Chaozhou people enjoy eating out in restaurants or at roadside food stalls close to midnight before they go to bed. Some restaurants stay open till dawn.

Unlike the typical menu selections of many other Chinese cuisines, Chaozhou restaurant menus often have a dessert section.

Many people of Chaozhou, also known as Teochiu or Teochew, heritage have settled in Southeast Asia during the Chinese Diaspora, especially Singapore and Thailand; influences can be noted in the cuisine of Singapore. This review article illustrates a Teochew Noodles House in Singapore. A large number of Teochew people have also settled in Taiwan, evident in Taiwanese cuisine.

 

Some famous Chaozhou dishes include, among others:

• Braised goose (滷鵝; Lou Gho)

 

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Notable Teochew People

 

Sir Ka-shing Li

Sir Ka-shing Li (李嘉誠), is a wealthy businessman from Hong Kong. He is the richest person of Chinese descent in the world and the eleventh richest man in the world according to Forbes with an estimated wealth of US$26.5 billion on 5 March 2008. Presently, he is the Chairman of Hutchison Whampoa Limited (HWL) and Cheung Kong Holdings; through them, he is the world's largest operator of container terminals and the world's largest health and beauty retailer.

Considered one of the most powerful figures in Asia, Li was named "Asia's Most Powerful Man" by Asiaweek in 2001. Forbes Magazine and the Forbes family honored Li Ka-shing with the first ever "Malcolm S. Forbes Lifetime Achievement Award" on September 5, 2006, in Singapore. In spite of his wealth, Li has a reputation for leading a no-frills lifestyle, and is known to wear simple black dress shoes and an inexpensive Seiko wristwatch. Li is also regarded as one of Asia's most generous philanthropists, donating over US$1 billion to date to charity and other various philanthropic causes.

Li is often referred to as "Superman" in Hong Kong because of his business prowess.

Li Ka-shing was born in Chaozhou in the Guangdong Province, China in 1928. In 1940 the Li family fled to Hong Kong to avoid the turmoils in China. Li's family stayed at the home of his wealthy uncle. The arrogance of Li's uncle with his immense wealth ignited Li's determination to make a place for himself in the world.

Li's father died in Hong Kong. Shouldering the responsibility of looking after the livelihood of the family, Li was forced to leave school before the age of 15 and found a job in a plastics trading company where he labored 16 hours a day. By 1950 he was able to start his own company, Cheung Kong Industries. From manufacturing plastics, Li led and developed his company into a leading real estate investment company in Hong Kong that was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange in 1972. Cheung Kong expanded by acquiring Hutchison Whampoa and Hongkong Electric Holdings Limited in 1979 and 1985 respectively.

 

 

Limahong

Map of the Philippines with Pangasinan highlighted

Limahong, Lim Ah Hong or also called Lin Feng (林風) was a notorious Chinese pirate and warlord who invaded the northern Philippine Islands in 1574. He built up a reputation for his constant raids to ports in Guangdong, Fujian and southern China. He is noted to have twice attempted, and failed, to overthrow the Spanish city of Manila in 1574.

Birth and Origins: Born Dim Mhon to a poor family in the city of Tru Cheo (Teochew) in the province of Cuy Tan (called Catim by the Portuguese during the middle of the 16th century). Known to be called Limahong, he had an early start in criminal activity and progressed to piracy becoming leader of around 2000 pirates. His activities and attacks on ports and ships throughout southern China increased and a warrant was issued by the authorities to capture him alive and send him to the city of Tay Bin. He was married to Nataracy.

He shifted his activities to piracy on the high seas and out of reach of China's power. He was able to accumulate up to 40 ships, whereupon he once again raided cities and ports in southern China. Limahong attacked a city occupied by Vinh To Quiam, another pirate, but Vinh was able to escape along with 5 of Limahong's ships. However, Limahong was able to capture 55 of Vinh's fleet and thus increased his own to 95 ships. He was now a veritable king of the high seas of southern China.

In late 1573, he gathered an army of 3,000 Chinese warriors, renegades and vagabonds and fled to the island of Luzon. There, he and his band of outlaws sought refuge, established their own kingdom and waged war with the Spaniards.

By this time, a force of 40,000 soldiers and 135 ships was sent by the Chinese to kill and capture Limahong. Limahong and his troops first arrived in Ilocos Sur in early 1574 where they quarrelled with the Spanish commander, Juan de Salcedo. After a brief struggle with the Spanish army, his troops were driven away from the city. The pirates then chanced upon merchant ships from Manila doing trade with the Chinese and learned from 2 captured ships that Manila was a new and relatively unprotected Spanish settlement. From this information and knowing that China had a no-war policy with its neighbors during that time, he decided to capture Manila and establish himself as ruler of his would-be kingdom and stronghold.

Limahong in Pangasinan: Foiled at Manila to establish a kingdom of his own, Limahong set sail for the Lingayen Gulf, to settle in Pangasinan province. Thinking this to be a rich place and far enough from the reach of the Spaniards and the Chinese emperor, Limahong resolved to stay here and to make himself master of the region.

Near the mouth of the Agno River about four miles from the sea he built a fort consisting of an outer palisade of palm logs, and an inner enclosure of palm planks which sheltered his palace. He also built pagodas and dwelling places preparatory for permanent settlement.

Limahong announced to the people that he had conquered the Spaniards and that he had come to rule over them as their king. They were commanded to pay tributes to him.

Thereupon, great terror and fright filled all the neighboring villages, and all of them, with no exception, received Limahong as king, and they obeyed him and paid him tributes. To make matters worse for the natives, he seized their principal chiefs and held them as hostages.

The Spaniards could not tolerate the presence of this Chinese corsair in their neighborhood. A scout ship had been sent by Governor Lavezares to follow the pirate fleet and it soon returned and reported where it had gone. An expedition of 256 Spaniards and about 2,500 Filipino troops, including the Rajah Lakandula of Tondo and his sons, set sail in 59 vessels for Lingayen on the 23rd of March, 1575.

In Pangasinan, the motley army was swelled by the addition of some companies of Pangasinan soldiers. They crossed the bar of the Agno River on the 30th of March, 1574, their presence unsuspected by the Chinese.

Captain Juan de Salcedo had been appointed Field Marshal in place of Martin de Goiti. He was assisted by Captain Lorenzo Chacon, Pedro de Chavez, and Gabriel de Rivera (sic). Salcedo noted on entering the river, a narrow place where the channel could easily be blocked. He stayed there in order to prevent the escape of the pirates. He ordered Captain Gabriel de Rivera and his company of 28 men to march immediately by land, and Captains Pedro de Chavez and Lorenzo Chacon to sail with 9 small boats and 80 men to ascend the river and to capture Chinese vessels with the Spanish fleet. The time was to be appointed so that both the land and the sea forces would arrive at the fort at the same instant, and make assault at the same time, so that they might be better successful in their purpose. Salcedo was to remain behind with all the rest of the forces to await the opportunity of furnishing aid in any emergency.

The river detachment met 35 vessels of the Chinese fleet sailing out to collect provisions. They were entirely unaware of the presence of the enemy in the vicinity, and when the Spaniards opened fire with their arquebuses, the pirates turned and fled grounding the ships at the river bank near the fort and then jumping overboard to escape the Spaniards, whom they outnumbered ten to one.

Destruction of the Chinese Fleet: The balance of the Chinese fleet which was just father up the river was tied up near the river bank with only the crews on board. When these sailors saw their comrades fleeing for their lives, they followed, and the entire fleet was abandoned to the Spaniards. During the melee, one of the vessels caught fire and before anything could be done, the Chinese fleet of over 60 vessels was already in flames.

The land party on the other hand, had forced an entrance into the back side of the port, capturing more than seventy women whom they found within the palisade, besides killing more than one hundred Chinese. Shortly after the Spaniards gained entrance, the fort was put into flames, whether by Chinese or by native auxiliaries could not be determined.

The river party joined in the attack on the fort. But the flames blowing into the faces of the attackers make progress difficult. The inner fort remained inviolate. The attackers stayed and blockaded the inner fort with an aim to starve the Chinese occupants inside. But thirst instead set in among them as the only water available in the fort was only from a small brackish well. Many of them left their ranks to collect loot and slaves.

A Beleaguered Fort: Limahong with his men constructed some boats inside the fort out of the half burnt remnants of his fleet which his men had brought into the fort at night without being detected by the Spaniards. The Chinese had made good use of the blockade also which lasted for three months by repairing the breaches on the walls and the damage of the fire which almost gutted his inner fort.

Under such circumstances, Salcedo's effort to blockade the Chinese fort seemed fruitless. A Council of War was called to plan other means to expel the Chinese from their fort. It was decided that the Spanish force should retire to an island in the river to make their blockade more effective.

The Chinese were exactly opposite the island, that is, they were north of it, in the words of Francisco de Sande. But what is more interesting is the fact that the island was within cannon shot of the fort; and one morning the Chinese trained the captured cannon Vigilantib on the camp and shattered the leg of standard bearer of Salcedo.

The Elusive Limahong: His Escape: The blockade seemed to be fruitless. Neither side would take the risk of decisive operations and the war degenerated into skirmishes between small bodies of Spaniards and some parties of Chinese going out for provisions to cut wood.

During this period, the pirate Limahong began the construction of thirty vessels within the fort, and as all his soldiers were good workmen, the project was completed on August 4, 1575.

At noon, on the same day, he set sail for his country after having been besieged within the fortification for over four months. This development took the Spaniards by surprise. They were astonished to see Limahong sailing out of fort through a channel which was unknown to them. It was believed and is still current among the natives of the locality, that Limahong constructed this channel with the utmost secrecy without either the land or sea force hearing it.

As a last effort to cut down Limahong, the ingenious Salcedo ordered his soldiers to drive stakes into the bed of the river where Limahong's ships were sure to pass. While on both banks of the river he had his men concealed ready to subject the pirates to a blinding fire.

Limahong finally arrived at the particular spot where the stakes were driven. Here, amidst blinding fires, Limahong had ropes fastened about the shoulders of his men and at the point of the sword, they were forced to go overboard. Then wrapping arms and legs about the stakes to act as human grappling hooks, the Chinese began their ugly job of pulling the stakes.

Thus, the unhappy wretches in the water, in addition to being almost pulled limb to limb in an effort to dislodge the stakes, were subjected to the fires of the Spanish arms. With great difficulty, enough stakes were removed and the pirate ships escaped to the China Sea passing through the mouth of the Agno River between Lingayen and Labrador. Limahong slipped, and made a wild dash for liberty out into the China Sea toward his former lair, reaching the island of Tocaotican "where he had sought refuge, dying of melancholy because of his reverses."

A Belated "Visitor": Shortly after the escape of Limahong from Pangasinan, Captain Omoncon, who was commissioned by his emperor to capture Limahong dead or alive, arrived in Philippine waters and encountered the Spanish soldiers at Bolinao, Pangasinan.

Upon being informed that Limahong escaped from Pangasinan in unworthy vessels out into the stormy China Sea with a slim chance to survive, he was very much overjoyed. From Pangasinan, Captain Omoncon went to Manila accompanied by Field Marshal Salcedo where the former was dined and entertained.

To cap it all, the governor ordered Salcedo and the soldiers to deliver to Captain Omoncon all Chinese pirates captured in Pangasinan, binding himself to pay to the soldiers to whom such belonged the appraised value of the captives.

This done, he ordered everything necessary for the voyage to be fully prepared, which was done within a few days. In return for all this kindness, Captain Omoncon agreed to take along with him to China some Augustinian fathers to spread Roman Catholicism. He finally departed with the fathers amidst the salvo of good-will and friendship.

Limahong's Legacy to Pangasinan: The province of Pangasinan will never forget this pirate prince, this blood-thirsty corsair who invaded her shore almost without warning. Like an ominous cloud above he held a part of her territory with a mighty sweep of the sword exacting heavy tributes and imprisoning the once proud and lordly local chieftains as hostages.

Today, many of the native Pangasinenses possess some tint of Chinese blood in their veins, and they are still distinguishable by their oblique eyes and light yellow complexion. Many of the most thrifty and most intelligent citizens of Lingayen and other towns in this part of the province and along the Agno River are of Chinese ancestry.