TEOCHEW

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

The Chaozhou Han or Chaozhou people (潮州人; commonly known as Teochew) are Han people who are native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China and speak the Teochew dialect. The Teochew diaspora can be found almost anywhere in the world, especially Southeast Asia, North America, Australasia and France. The diaspora, at least estimated, contains over 10 million people, which is as much as the population of Chaoshan itself. They speak a language closely related to Hokkien, and their Teochew cuisine is distinctive. The ancestors of the Teochew people moved to present-day Chaoshan from the Central Plains of China in order to escape from a series of civil wars during the Jin Dynasty.

Terms

Teochew can be romanised in a variety of schemes, and are known in Mandarin as Chaozhou ren and Cantonese as Chiuchao yan. In referring to themselves as ethnic Chinese, Teochew people generally use Deung nang (唐人; Mandarin: Tangren), literally Tang Dynasty people, as opposed to Hang nang (漢人; Mandarin: Hanren), which means 'Han Dynasty people'. Teochew people of the diaspora would generally use Hua nang (華人; Mandarin: Huaren) to indicate Chinese heritage in a cultural sense.

Teochew people also commonly refer to each other as ga gi nang (家己人; Mandarin: jiajiren) which means 'our own people'.

To situate the term into a contemporary sociocultural context, Teochew people in Chaoshan of today refer to themselves as Chaoshan people, rather than Teochew people.

 

History

Historically, these people were called Helao or Fulao, as they came mostly from Henan and Shanxi via Fujian, with well-maintained language and customs from north-central China. As was recorded in pedigrees and ancient inscriptions, these people who had originally migrated to southern Fujian, especially from Quanzhou and Putian, made settlements toward Chaoshan in batches and soon spread all over the Chaoshan area. Geographic isolation and difficulty in traveling in the past made the Helao or Fulao become a relatively closed population. Recently, studies of genetic analysis supported that although all Han Chinese are indeed related and share a common root, the Teochew had closest links with the Minnan area of Fujian province and those from the Taihang Mountain range of north-central China.

 

Teochew Immigration to Singapore

Since 19th century, due to disadvantaged circumstances, a chunk of Teochew people left their homeland, crossed the seas and ended up in Singapore for a new life. There were two types of them: some were here to help their relatives with their ever-expanding business; the others were broke and were looking for opportunities.

Early Teochew settlers could trace their origins to 8 counties of Prefecture Teochew: Chao'an, Chenghai, Chaoyang, Jieyang, Raoping, Puning, Huilai and Nan'ao. Apart from these new immigrants leaving from Port Swatow, there was a Teochew diaspora relocating to Singapore from Siam and Kepulauan Riau.

Today, Teochew people is the second largest dialect group in the island city-state.

 

 

 

潮州人

潮州民系，或稱潮州人，也稱潮汕人（特指潮州和汕頭兩地），是廣東三大民系之一，也是中國南方乃至全球華人界最具影響力的民系之一。

潮州人主要分佈在廣東潮州府地區，包括汕頭、潮州、揭陽，以及海外華人聚居地。國內潮人約一千萬，海外潮州人約二千到三千萬。 另外：

潮州人所說的話，彼此之間能溝通。現今的潮州人由於他們居住的地方是屬於廣東省境內，故早已沒有閩南民系或福佬民系的強烈認同了，但他們的潮州人的認同卻是十分強烈的。潮語（即俗稱潮州話）是閩南語的分支也是代表。旅居海外的潮州華僑、華人也很多，集中最多的地方是泰國曼谷的唐人街，在這裡，幾乎處處可通潮州話。

* 從難民到逐步融入主流社會的法國潮州人

* 自稱到十字路口　大馬潮州人尋根

* 刻苦耐勞異邦創業潮州人泰國顯風流

* 新加坡的潮州人

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Teochew Dialect

The Teochew language (潮州話; variably spelled Teochiu ue, Tiuchiu ue, Tiochiu ue, Diojiu ue, Tözüue, or Trieu Chau in Vietnamese, but most commonly referred to in English as Teochew) is typically classified by Chinese linguists as part of the Southern Min Chinese language family. It is spoken in the Chaoshan (潮汕) region of eastern Guangdong and by the Teochew diaspora in various regions around the world.

Chaoshan is a unique area with its own culture that is quite different from its neighbours in Guangdong and the rest of China. It does, however, share similarities to the Minnan areas just north of Chaoshan in Fujian Province. One of the main reasons for its uniqueness is its language, called Chaozhou. It is said that this dialect of Chinese is one of the most difficult ones to master, as it has 8 tones compared to the 4 tones found in Mandarin. Music, opera, and food are further characteristics that distinguish Chaoshan people from the rest of Guangdong.

Chaozhou Dialect by which the Chaozhou culture conveys, is considered as one of the oldest Chinese dialects for it preserves many elegant and refined features from ancient Chinese that have been lost in some of the other modern dialects of Chinese. As such, many linguists consider Teochew one of the most conservative Chinese dialects. It is spoken by about 10 million people in local Chaozhou and approximately 2-5 million overseas.

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

History and Geography of Chaoshan

Map Showing Cities of Chaochou and Swatow (Shantou)

Cháoshàn (潮汕) refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew (spelt Chiuchow in Hong Kong) for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou (sometimes spelt Swatow) and Jieyang. It differs from the rest of Guangdong province which consists of Cantonese and Hakka speakers.

Origin: The name "Chaoshan" (潮汕) is a contraction of the names of two of its administrative areas, the prefecture-level cities of Chaozhou (潮州), and Shantou (汕頭).

Geography: Encompassing the cities of Chaozhou, Shantou and Jieyang (揭陽), the Chaoshan region, with a permanent population of 13,247,400 at the end of 2007, covers an area of 10,028 km² that stretches from Shanwei on the coast to the border of Fujian. The Chaoshan region also includes Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai, Nanao, Lufeng, Haifeng, Shanwei and Huidong (惠東). Parts of the Hakka-speaking region, like Jiexi (揭西), Dabu (大埔) and Fengshun (豐順) are also Chaozhou-speaking.

Climate: A temperate climate and fresh seafood attracts many visitors to this area. The people are more relaxed than other areas of China, smoking rate is less, and work should always take the backseat to noon naps and Kung-Fu tea. Many visitors from Hong Kong flock to the area for the great food known throughout China. The food is subtle and so is able to retain its original flavor without being tampered by soy sauce, vinegar, chili, and other sauces. Other favorites are beef balls, fish balls, rice noodle, and numerous other small treats.

History: Modern Teochew evolved from the more archaic Southern Min Language. Between the 9th and the 15th century, a group of Min people migrated south from Fujian (福建) to the coastal region of eastern Guangdong now known as Chaoshan (潮汕). This migration was most likely due in part to over-population in Fujian.

Due to geographical isolation from Fujian, Teochew evolved into a separate dialect.

The administrative region now known as Chaoshan in China was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia during the 18th–20th centuries, forming one of the larger dialect groups among the Overseas Chinese. In particular, the Teochew people settled in significant numbers in Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos where they form the largest Chinese dialect group. They constitute a significant minority in Hong Kong, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (especially in Riau, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Kalimantan, in Pontianak and Ketapang). Teochew speakers also live in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe, a result of both direct emigration from Chaoshan to these nations and secondary emigration from Southeast Asia.

However, as the world globalises, the language is losing popularity among its ancestral speakers. In Singapore, due to common culture, and influences from the media and government, Singaporean Chinese youths whose ancestral language is Teochew are either converting to English, Standard Mandarin or Hokkien (with which it shares a certain degree of mutual intelligibility). Teochew remains the ancestral language of many Chinese people in Singapore - Teochew people are the second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the Hokkien - although Mandarin is gradually supplanting Teochew as their mother tongue, especially among the younger generations.

 

 

Chaoshan

Chaozhou

Shantou

Jieyang

Together, Chaozhou and the nearby cities of Shantou and Jieyang in Guangdong are called Chaoshan (潮汕)

 

 

Chaozhou

Chaozhou (潮州; literally "Tide Prefecture"; usually spelled Chiu Chow in the US and Hong Kong), also widely known by its Postal map spelling Teochew, is a prefecture-level city in eastern Guangdong province, People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the south, Jieyang to the southwest, Meizhou to the northwest, the province of Fujian to the east, and the South China Sea to the southeast.

Chaozhou is located in the easternmost part of Guangdong Province, north of the coastal Shantou City. It is situated in the north of the delta of the Han River (韩江), which flows throughout the city.

History: In 214 BC, Chaozhou was an undeveloped and named part of Nanhai Commandery (南海郡) of the Qin Dynasty. In 331 during the Eastern Han Dynasty (東汉), Haiyang (海陽縣) was established as a part of Dongguan Commandery (東官郡).

Dongguan Commandery was renamed to Yi'an Commandery (義安郡) in 413. The commandery became a prefecture in 590 in the early Sui Dynasty; first as Xun Prefecture (循州, Xunzhou), then as Chao Prefecture (潮州, Chaozhou) in the following year. In 1914, the Republic of China government combined Chao and Xun prefectures into Chaoxun Prefecture or Chaoxun Circuit (潮循道).

For a short while in the Sui and early Tang Dynasties, Haiyang District was called Yi'an District (義安縣). The name remained Haiyang until 1914, when it was renamed to Chao'an County (潮安縣) to avoid ambiguity with the Haiyang County of Shandong Province.

Culture: Chaozhou is famously known as one of the great cultural centres in the Lingnan region of China. Chaozhou culture is known worldwide as a unique part of world heritage. Down through history, the Chaozhou region, was able to flourish and thrive as a prosperous cultural centre enabling the nourishing of a unique and distinctive character epitomized in the Chaozhou Dialect, Chaozhou opera, Chaozhou cuisine, Chaozhou Ganghu tea, Chaozhou music, and Chaozhou embroidery.

Tourism: Chaozhou is a famous historical and cultural city in the country. The city's feature is known as "Classic Tourist City" which receives numerous tourists both from abroad and home. There are many valuable historic relics in Chaozhou city, totally about 600 units and among them 42 are classified as the state, provincial and city's key preservation units of cultural relics. The Chaozhou Dialect, Chaozhou opera, Chaozhou Ganghu tea, etc. have unique features of Chaozhou culture, attracting numerous tourists from home and abroad, and are the richly endowed tourist resources.

• Beige Fodeng—The Lighthouse of Buddha (北閣佛燈). The lighthouse was used for boats in the Hanjiang river as this part of the river was dangerous. The lighthouse could remind people that they were in Chaozhou area and ought to be careful. It is said a former emperor once passed in his "dragon boat" while he was sleeping and was woken by the light from this Lighthouse. He thought it must have been a bodhisattva sending him the light and therefore named it the "lighthouse of Buddha".
• Guangzi Bridge (廣濟橋), built in the Southern Song Dynasty (1170 A.D.).
• Huang Jilue Temple (己略黃公祠), displaying the wood carving art of Chaozhou in the Qing Dynasty.
• The old site of Song Kiln, that shows the scale of production and the exquisite craftsmanship of ceramic in ancient Chaozhou.
• Jiadixiang (甲第巷), the ancient family houses.
• Kaiyuan Temple (開元寺) is a Buddhist center embodied with the quintessence of the architectural art of various dynasties such as the Tang, the Song, the Yuan and the Qing. This temple is over 200 years old. The temple is also home to the most influential Buddhism Study Institute in Southeast China. Inside, handsome calligraphy and inscribed steles remind visitors that this temple once functioned as the record keeper of the city.
• Night scene of the People's Square.
• The Ming city wall (明城墻), 2.6 kilometers long.
• Xu, Imperial Son-in-law, Mansion (許駙馬府), which retains the basic pattern of the architecture of the Song Dynasty.
• Xi Hu Yuan, a museum in the main city park, has a unique collection unique of stones with natural geological markings representing (or resembling) Chinese characters.

Miscellaneous

• The township of Chaojhou in western Pingtung County, Taiwan is named after Chaozhou.
• The Chaozhou people form the second largest group amongst the ethnic Chinese in Singapore, after the Hokkiens, comprising 21% of Chinese Singaporeans. Teochew was originally the dominant language amongst the Chinese immigrants in Singapore, until it was superseded by the Hokkiens due to later immigration flows. Concentrations of Chaozhou people once settled along the banks of the Singapore River as well as the Straits of Johor, until urban development and the redistribution of the people in public housing development diluted this geographic trend, although they are still known to concentrate in the northeast such as in Hougang. Traditional commercial sectors of Chinatown once dominated by Teochews include Circular Road and South Bridge Road. Chaozhou peoples also founded rural settlements and were active in the plantation industry, and gave rise to modern place names such as Choa Chu Kang, Lim Chu Kang and Yio Chu Kang. Today, the Chaozhou people continue to be represented by various clans and association, one of the most prominent being the Ngee Ann Kongsi, which built schools such as the Ngee Ann Secondary School and also went into real-estate (Ngee Ann City). Much effort has been made to preserve their distinct identity and culture under the heavy influence of the Hokkiens, including through the airing of a popular television drama, The Teochew Family (潮州家族) in 1995 by MediaCorp's Channel 8.
• There is a large population of Chaozhou people in Hong Kong. When mainland China opened its gate in the 1950s, there was an exodus of refugees into Hong Kong to flee the communist rule. Refugees from Chaozhou banded together in very tight communities. They were known to be very generous of helping refugees from their own regions. They spoke their own Teochew dialect amongst themselves, hence they stood out among the locals when almost everybody else spoke Cantonese in Hong Kong. The locals called them by the name "Chiu Chow Loun", where Chiu Chow is the Cantonese pronunciation of their origin, Teo Chew and Nang is the Teochew pronunciation of the word "people". They were known to be a very hardworking people and they were good at running small businesses. Back in the 1960s, almost every "rice store" (grocery stores for dried food and uncooked rice) in Hong Kong were owned by "Chiu Chow Loun". Decades and generations later, the offspring of these immigrants blended into the rest of the communities. Large corporation run supermarkets drove many "rice stores" out of business. Chiu Chow Loun no longer as stood out as special communities in Hong Kong, though they are still very active in organizing charity activities, especially around the "ghost festival" in the seventh month of the Chinese calendar.
• There is a large population of Chaozhou people in Pontianak and Ketapang, Indonesia. Teochew is the main lingua franca used among the Chinese, and Teochew are the dominant ethnic Chinese group in Pontianak and Ketapang.

 

 

Jieyang

Jieyang (揭陽) is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong province. The Teochew dialect is predominantly spoken in this region. The Hakka dialect, however, is also used by Hakka people in Jiexi County. During 1930s many Jieyang people emigrated to Pontianak, Indonesia and Thailand to seek better fortune.

 

 

Shantou

Shantou (汕頭; Swatow), a city significant in 19th-century Chinese history as one of the treaty ports established for Western trade and contact

Shantou was a fishing village part of Tuojiang City (鮀江都), Jieyang District (揭陽縣) during the Song Dynasty. It came to be Xialing (廈嶺) during the Yuan Dynasty. In 1563, Shantou was a part of Chenghai District (澄海縣) in Chao Prefecture (Chaozhou). As early as 1574, Shantou had been called Shashan Ping (沙汕坪). In the seventeenth century, a cannon platform called Shashan Toupaotai (沙汕頭炮臺) was made here, and the placename later was shortened to "Shantou". Locally it has been referred to as Kialat.

Connecting to Shantou across the Queshi Bridge is Queshi (礐石) which had been known by the local people through the 19th century as Kakchio. It was the main site for the American and British Consulates. Today the area is a scenic park but some of the structures are somewhat preserved from its earlier history.

Shantou is one of the most densely populated regions in China. Former Chaoyang City was China's most populous county-level administrative region, with 2.4 million inhabitants.

Most residents are ethnically Teochew. There are also Hakka, popularly known as Half-Hakka (半山客), living mainly in Chaoyang District (潮陽區) and Chaonan District (潮南區), although they speak Teochew on a daily basis and practise Teochew culture.

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* HLA Antigens in Three Normal Southern Chinese Dialect Groups -- Cantonese, Hokkiens and Teochew by S.H. Chan, et al.

Synopsis: The HLA profiles of the Cantonese, Hokkien and Teochew dialect groups in the Chinese population were compared. The profiles of the three groups were remarkably similar. HLA-A2 and HLA-Bw46 were strongly and significantly associated in all three dialect groups. Other significantly associated antigen pairs were Aw19, B17 and A29, B7 in the Cantonese and Blank, B40 in the Teochews.

 

HLA-B46

Dark Red = 7% or greater,
Red = 3 to 7%
Orange = 1 to 3%
Green = O to 1%
Black = regions not typed

HLA-B46 (B46) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the gene products of HLA-B*4601 allele. B*4601 resulted from a rare, interlocus, gene conversion between B62, probably B*1501, and a HLA-C allele. B*4601 is the most common HLA-B allele that does not have an origin within Africa, and estimated 400 million people in Eastern Asia carry a B46 allele. When found B*4601 segregates with only 2 HLA-Cw alleles, A limited number of HLA-A and HLA-DRB1 alleles suggesting that the allele recently expanded from a limited sized group within SE Asia. Extremely low frequencies outside of Eastern Asia are indicators of a recent expansion of B46 from a recently small population. The frequency distribution suggests the ancestral B46 population was in SE China, or, potentially Burma (Myanmar or Laos, untested). B46 in Asia correlates with wet-rice farming. The exceptions are notable, it has been found in the Nivkhi on north-eastern Sakalin Island, the Ainu, and the Nivkhi-related (genetically) Tlinglet population of Alaska at trace levels. This B46 contribution appears to have been recent.

A2-B46 is one of the most frequent, if not the most frequent A-B haplotype in the world, even though it is absent from the indigenous populations of most peoples in the world.

The most common haplotype, and probably the ancestral haplotype given its distribution from the Ninhivet to Indonesia is:

A*0207 : C*0102 : B*4601 : DRB1*0901 : DQA1*0302 : DQB1*0303

A different haplotype that is more common in Korea and Japan is

A*0207 : C*0102 : B*4601 : DRB1*0803 : DQA1*0103 : DQB1*0601

B46, or a closely linked allele may have been under positive selection in rice farmers of Asia.

 

Wet Rice Farming

A paddy field is a flooded parcel of arable land used for growing rice and other semiaquatic crops. Rice can also be grown in dry-fields, but from the twentieth century paddy field agriculture became the dominant form of growing rice. Paddy fields are a typical feature of rice-growing countries of east, south and southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos.

Paddy fields can be built adjacent to otherwise natural areas such as rivers or marshes. They can be constructed, often on steep hillsides with much labor and materials. The fields require large quantities of water for irrigation. Flooding provides water essential to the growth of the crop. Water also provides a favorable environment for the rice strains being grown as well as discouraging the growth of many species of weeds. The water buffalo is one of the most important working animals adapted for life in wetlands so they are extensively used in paddy fields.

History: Archaeologists generally accept that wet-field cultivation originated in China. At Caoxieshan, a site of the Neolithic Majiabang culture, archaeologists excavated paddy fields. Some archaeologists claim that Caoxieshan may date to 4000-3000 B.C., but as of now the oldest excavated rice paddy field dated by absolute scientific dating techniques are from Korea. There is archaeological evidence that unhusked rice was stored for the military and for burial with the deceased from the Neolithic period to the Han Dynasty in China.

The Majiabang culture (馬家浜文化) was a Neolithic culture that existed at the mouth of the Yangtze River, primarily around the Taihu area and north of Hangzhou Bay in China. The culture was spread throughout southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. Initially, archaeologists had considered the Majiabang sites and sites in northern Jiangsu to be part of the same culture, naming it the Qingliangang culture. Archaeologists later realized that the northern Jiangsu sites were of the Dawenkou culture and renamed the southern Jiangsu sites as the Majiabang culture. The Majiabang culture coexisted with the Hemudu culture for over a thousand years as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two cultures.

Majiabang people cultivated rice. At Caoxieshan, a site of the Majiabang culture, archaeologists excavated paddy fields. However, faunal remains excavated from Majiabang archaeological sites indicated that people had domesticated pigs. In addition, the remain of sika and roe deer have been found, showing that people were not totally reliant on agricultural production. Archaeological sites also bear evidence that Majiabang people produced jade ornaments.

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Genetic Studies

 

* Dominant Contribution of Northern Chinese to the Paternal Genetic Structure of Chaoshanese in South China by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Abstract: We investigated the Y chromosome of various Chinese populations to determine the patrilineal origin of the Chaoshanese population. Admixture analysis of six specific Y short tandem repeat (STR) loci in 6,292 individual samples taken from 51 populations, including Chaoshanese and Minnanese of our earlier studies, showed that over 85% of the Chaoshanese Y chromosomes were derived from the Central China Han (M RH: 0.8614; M BE: 1.1868 ± 0.2054), and a very small portion were from the southern aborigines. These results support a Central China Han origin of the Chaoshanese and additionally reveal that males from the Central China Han were the predominant contributor to the patrilineal genetics of the Chaoshanese. A phylogenetic tree and analysis of molecular variance signified a strong association between Y chromosomes of Chinese populations and their linguistic affiliations, revealing a coevolution of Y chromosome diversity and languages in East Asia.

 

* Genetic Link Between Chaoshan and Other Chinese Han Populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Abstract: The genetic polymorphism of HLA-A and HLA-B loci was investigated in 505 Chaoshanese using PCR-SSP method. Among the HLA-A alleles detected, A*11 (35.64%) was most frequent, followed by A*02 (31.78%). Of 34 HLA-B alleles tested, 30 were observed, in which B*60 (21.68%), B*46 (14.46%), and B*58 (10.69%) were highly predominant. Comparison was made with other nine Chinese Han ethnic groups covering the Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The high frequent alleles found in Chaoshanese were also common in other Chinese groups compared though the frequency levels varied from group to group. The phylogenic tree analysis based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of all the 10 Chinese ethnic groups revealed that Chaoshanese, while clustering in general with the southern China-related Han Chinese, had the highest affinity to the Mainland Minnanese, but separated distinctively from the northern Han Chinese. The study, however, was yet to confirm the hypothesis of the Central Plains Han origin of Chaoshanese. Interestingly, the alleles (B*46, B*38, and B*58) and the related haplotypes (A*02-B*46 and A*33-B*58) that are positively associated with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), a disease prevailing predominantly among southern Chinese, were always at much higher frequencies among southern Chinese than among northern Chinese, whereas A*31 and B*13, the two alleles with highly protective effects for NPC, and the associated haplotype A*30-B*13 were predominantly high in northern Chinese. The different genetic background between northern and southern China may explain, at least partially, the prevalence of NPC among southern Chinese.

 

Neighbor-Joining Tree

 

Neighbor-joining tree constructed by Nei’s genetic distance based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of Chaoshan and the other nine Chinese Han populations. Chaoshan clusters closely with the Mainland Minnan and the Mainland Hakka. All southern China-related groups in general cluster together and are separated from the China North group with the China Middle standing in between.

 

 

Min Nan

The Southern Min language, or Min Nan, ("Southern Fujian" language) refers to a family of Chinese dialects which are spoken in southern Fujian and neighboring areas, and by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora. In common parlance, Southern Min usually refers to the Hokkien, in particular the Amoy and Taiwanese. Amoy and Taiwanese are both combinations of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The Southern Min family also includes Teochew and Hainanese. Teochew has limited mutual intelligibilty with the Amoy. However, Hainanese is generally not considered to be mutually intelligible with any other Southern Min variants.

Southern Min forms part of the Min language group, alongside several other divisions. The Min languages/dialects are part of the Chinese language group, itself a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Southern Min is not mutually intelligible with Eastern Min, Cantonese, or Mandarin. As with other varieties of Chinese, there is a political dispute as to whether the Southern Min language should be called a language or a dialect. (See Identification of the varieties of Chinese for greater detail.)

Geographic Distribution: Southern Min is spoken in the southern part of Fujian province, three southeastern counties of Zhejiang province, the Zhoushan archipelago off Ningbo in Zhejiang, and the eastern part of Guangdong province (Chaoshan region). The Qiong Wen variant spoken in the Leizhou peninsula of Guangdong province, as well as Hainan province, which is not mutually intelligible with standard Minnan or Teochew, is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate.

A form of Southern Min akin to that spoken in southern Fujian is also spoken in Taiwan, where it has the native name of Tâi-oân-oē or Hō-ló-oē. The (sub)ethnic group for which Southern Min is considered a native language is known as the Holo (Hō-ló) or Hoklo, the main ethnicity of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is generally true though not absolute, as some Hoklo have very limited proficiency in Southern Min while some non-Hoklos speak Southern Min fluently.

There are many Southern Min speakers also among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. Many ethnic Chinese emigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian, and brought the language to what is now Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies) and present day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly Malaya and the British Straits Settlements). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as Hokkien, Hokkienese, Fukien or Fookien in Southeast Asia, and is very much like Taiwanese. Many Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese also originated in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong province and speak Teochew, the variant of Southern Min from that region. Southern Min is reportedly the native language of up to 98.5% of the community of ethnic Chinese in the Philippines, among whom it is also known as Lan-nang or Lán-lâng-oē ("Our people’s language"). Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore with the largest being Hoklos and the second largest being the Teochews.

Comparison: Xiamen speech is a hybrid of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Taiwanese is also a hybrid of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Taiwanese in northern Taiwan tends to be based on Quanzhou speech, whereas the Taiwanese spoken in southern Taiwan tends to be based on Zhangzhou speech. There are minor variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The grammar is basically the same. Additionally, Taiwanese includes several dozen loanwords from Japanese. In contrast, Teochew speech is significantly different from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech in both pronunciation and vocabulary.

Mutual Intelligibility

 

 

* STR Polymorphisms of the Henan Population and Investigation of the Central Plains Han Origin of Chaoshanese by LN Xu, et al.

Abstract: Allele frequencies for 15 short tandem repeat (STR) loci were obtained from a Chinese Han population in Henan province of middle China. No deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was observed for the STR loci except for D3S1358. The 15 STR loci are potentially useful for paternity testing and forensic casework in the Henan population. A phylogenetic tree based on CODIS STR allele frequencies of 25 Han populations revealed noticeable but far less clear distinctions between southern and northern Chinese populations; the Henan Han population was located at an intermediate position between south and north Chinese Han populations, relatively closer to Chaoshan and Minnan Han. Moreover, admixture analysis showed a large proportion of Central Plains Han origin in Chaoshanese and Minnanese. Admixture and phylogenetic analysis also reflected the genetic similarity shared by these two groups.

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* mtDNA Evidence: Genetic background associated with related populations at high risk for esophageal cancer between Chaoshan and Taihang Mountain areas in China by Xiao-Yun Li, et al.

Abstract: There are three major geographic regions in China known for their high incidences of esophageal cancer (EC): the Taihang Mountain range of north-central China, the Minnan area of Fujian province, and the Chaoshan plain of Guangdong province. Historically, waves of great population migrations from north-central China through coastal Fujian to the Chaoshan plain were recorded. To study the genetic relationship among the related EC high-risk populations, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups based on 30 EC patients from Chaoshan and used control samples from the high-risk populations, including 48, 73, and 89 subjects from the Taihang, Fujian, and Chaoshan areas, respectively. The principal component of all haplogroups, correlation analysis of haplogroup frequency distributions between populations, and haplogroup D network analysis showed that compared with other Chinese populations, populations in the three studied areas are genetically related. The highest haplogroup frequency shared by all studied populations was haplogroup D, with much higher frequency in the Chaoshan area EC patients. The majority of haplogroup D individuals among the Chaoshan area EC patients belonged to subhaplogroups D4a and D5a, with the total frequency of these two haplogroups significantly higher than that in the high-risk population in the same area (χ2 = 9.017, p < 0.01). In conclusion, EC high-risk populations in these three areas share a similar matrilineal genetic background, and D4a and D5a might be candidate genetic markers for screening populations susceptible to EC in the Chaoshan area. Ours is the first report to show the association between mtDNA haplogroups (D4a and D5a) and esophageal cancer.

 

Taihang Mountains

Map from East Asia in Geographic Perspective

The Taihang Mountains (太行山) are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau (黃土高原) in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei provinces. The range extends over 400 km from north to south and has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 meters. The principal peak is Xiao Wutaishan (2,882 metres). Cangyan Shan in Hebei forms the eastern tip of the Taihang range.

The name of Shanxi Province (山西), meaning "west of the mountains", derives from its location west of the Taihang Mountains, as does the name of Shandong Province ( 山東; east of the mountains).

太行山又名五行山、王母山、女媧山。中國東部地區的重要山脈和地理分界線。聳於北京、河北、山西、河南4省、市間。北起北京西山，南達豫北黃河北崖，西接山西高原，東臨華北平原，綿延400餘公里，為山西東部、東南部與河北、河南兩省的天然界山。這裡是華北平原進入山西高原的要道。

歷史與軍事作用: 太行山形勢險峻，歷來被視為兵要之地。從春秋戰國直到明、清，兩千多年間烽火不息。公元前650年，齊伐晉，入孟門、登太行。齊桓公曾懸車束馬窬太行。公元前263年，秦伐韓，在太行山「決羊腸之險」，一舉奪韓滎陽。公元前204年，劉邦被困於滎陽、成皋之間，他採納酈食其的建議，北扼飛狐之口，南守白馬（今河南滑縣東北）之津，終於轉危為安。東漢元初元年（公元114年），漢安帝為防外敵侵犯洛陽，下詔在太行南端36處要衝屯兵。曹操圍臨漳，袁尚輕易率軍東出太行，結果大敗於曹軍。晉太元十九年（公元394年），後燕慕容垂進伐西燕，屯軍於臨漳西南。西燕慕容永令全部人馬前去堵塞太行山口，慕容垂引兵自滏口進入，滅了西燕。隋末，李世民與竇建德相爭，李世民進據虎牢，使竇不能越過太行，李乘機佔領上黨，盡收河東之地。元至元十八年（公元1281年），劉福通率起義軍越過太行，火燒上黨。元將察罕粘木兒塞井陘、杜太行，遏止起義軍向北發展。

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* Polymorphism of 17 Y-STR Loci in Shanxi Han Population and Genetic Relationship with 13 Populations by MS Shi, et al.

14 个群体NJ 系统发生树

 

14 个群体聚类分析图

 

 

* Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation by Jieming Chen, et al.

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The cluster and stratification of the samples from the ten provinces of China, showing an evident north-south genetic differentiation.)

 

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The three dialect groups from the Guangdong province were shown against all of the Han Chinese samples from the ten provinces. There was stratification among the three dialect groups, along the same north-south trend observed for the overall Han Chinese.)

 

 

* Tracing the Legacy of the Early Hainan Islandersa Perspective from Mitochondrial DNA by Min-Sheng Peng, et al.

Principle Components Analysis (PCA) of Populations in Southern China and Vietnam

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Abstract: Hakka and Chaoshanese are two unique Han populations residing in southern China but with northern Han (NH) cultural traditions and linguistic influences. Although most of historical records indicate that both populations migrated from northern China in the last two thousand years, no consensus on their origins has been reached so far. To shed more light on the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese, mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 170 Hakka from Meizhou and 102 Chaoshanese from Chaoshan area, Guangdong Province, were analyzed. Our results show that some southern Chinese predominant haplogroups, e.g. B, F, and M7, have relatively high frequencies in both populations. Although median network analyses show that Hakka/Chaoshanese share some haplotypes with NH, interpopulation comparison reveals that both populations show closer affinity with southern Han (SH) populations than with NH. In consideration of previous results from nuclear gene (including Y chromosome) research, it is likely that matrilineal landscapes of both Hakka and Chaoshanese have largely been shaped by the local people during their migration southward and/or later colonization in southern China, and factors such as cultural assimilation, patrilocality, and even sex-bias in the immigrants might have played important roles during the process.

 

Population Analyzed

 

Two-dimensional PC Plot of mtDNA of Han Populations

 

PC Map of Y Chromosome of Han Chinese

 

 

Haplogroup F (mtDNA)

Haplogroup F is centered in Asia and appears in eastern China and Japan. It is not found in the Americas. It is a descendant haplogroup of Haplogroup R.

Fairly common in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Higher frequencies occur in some areas like Nicobar at 50% and Arunachal Pradesh 31% (India), and Shors people from Siberia at 44%. There is also an important frequency in Taiwanese aborigines, Guangdong (China), Maluku (Indonesia), Thailand and Vietnam.

 

 

Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

__________________________________________________________________________

 

* HLA Class III and Non-HLA Blood Genetic Markers in Chinese by S.W. Serjeantson, et al.

Phylogenetic Relationships Between Eight Chinese Populations, Based on Seven Polymorphic Systems

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

HLA-A31

HLA-A31 (A31) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group. This group currently is dominated by A*3101. A31 and A*31 are almost synonymous in meaning. A31 is a split antigen of the broad antigen serotype A19. A31 is a sister serotype of A29, A30, A32, A33, and A74.

A31 is more common in South and Central America.

A31 Examination of A31 haplotypes reveal a probably connection across northern Eurasia during the prehistoric period. Frequencies of the more 'tale-tell' haplotypes (A31-B60, B61, and B62) fall from NE to SW Europe. Other haplotypes appears to have spread from the Middle East (A31-B51 and A31-B35)..

 

HLA A31 Haplotype Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
A31-B35 (A*310102:Cw*0401:B*3501)
Lakota Souix (USA)	4.1
Indig American (USA)	3.7
Mestizo (Guad. Mexico)	1.5
Jews (England)	1.3
Tibetan	1.1
Italian	0.6
Japanese	0.5
French	0.5
Choushan (China)	0.4
German	0.3
A31-B51 (A*310102:B*5101)
Ainu (Hokkaido Japan)	8.9
Indig. Brazil	5.8
Orochon (Russia)	5.3
Indig American (USA)	4.3
Tibetan	3.3
Inner Mongolian	3.0
Japanese	3.0
Portuguese	1.6
Korean	1.2
Italian	0.9
French	0.5
German	0.3
Choushan (China)	0.2
A31-B60 (A*310102:Cw*0304:B*4001)
Lusaka (Zambia)	2.3
Yakuts (Russia)	2.0
Irish	0.7
Choushan (China)	0.7
Japan	0.6
Dutch	0.6
German	0.4
A31-B62 (A*310102:B*1501)
Nivkhi (Sakalin, Russia)	12.5
Yakut (Russia)	5.5
Indig. Brazil	4.1
Manchu	1.1
Japan	0.4
German	0.2
Choushan (China)	0.2

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

日治時期台灣閩粵原住民分佈概圖 (潮州人, Teochew in pink)

 

 

Chaojhou, Pingtung

Chaozhou (潮州) is an urban township in western Pingtung County, Taiwan.

Chaozhou is named for the Chinese city of Chaozhou. According to some historians, settlers from that city landed here in 1724, and thus named this area after their home city.

* 台灣‧屏東縣／潮州鎮

* 台灣之光旅遊體驗網台北- 潮州肉圓

* 屏東潮州金陵街小吃 by backpackers.com.tw

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Peranakan

Peranakan and Baba-Nyonya (峇峇娘惹) are terms used for the descendants of the very early immigrants to the Nusantara region, including both the British Straits Settlements of Malaya and the Dutch-controlled island of Java among other places, who have partially adopted Malay customs in an effort (chronological adaptation) to be assimilated into the local communities. While the term Peranakan is most commonly used for those of Chinese descent, whose are also known as Straits Chinese (土生華人; named after the Straits Settlements), there are also other, comparatively small Peranakan communities, such as Indian Hindu Peranakans (Chitty), Indian Muslim Peranakans (Jawi Pekan) and Eurasian Peranakans (Kristang).

In both Malay and Indonesian, 'Peranakan' means 'descendants'. Babas refer to the male descendants and the Nyonyas the female. The word nyonya (also commonly spelled nonya) may originate from the Portuguese word dona, which means 'lady'. The word Peranakan is also used to describe Chinese Indonesians.

Most Peranakan are of Hoklo (Hokkien) ancestry, although a sizable number are of Teochew or Cantonese descent. Originally, the Peranakan were part Chinese, part Malay, and part descended from the original inhabitants of Princess Hang Li Po of Malacca. Written records from the 19th and early 20th centuries show that Peranakan men usually took brides from within the local Peranakan community. Peranakan families also frequently imported brides from China and sent their daughters to China to find husbands.

The language of the Peranakans, Baba Malay (Bahasa Melayu Baba), is a dialect of the Malay language (Bahasa Melayu), which contains many Hokkien words. It is a dying language, and its contemporary use is mainly limited to members of the older generation. English has now replaced Baba as the main language spoken at home amongst the younger generation.

History: In the 15th century, the city states of the Malay Peninsula often paid tribute to various kingdoms such as the kingdoms of China and Siam. Close relations with China were established in the early 15th century, during the reign of Parameswara, when Admiral Zheng He (Cheng Ho), a Muslim Chinese, visited Malacca. According to traditional accounts, in 1459 CE, the Emperor of China sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to the Sultan of Malacca as a token of appreciation for his tribute. The royalty and servants who accompanied the princess initially settled in Bukit Cina and eventually grew into a class of straits-born Chinese known as the Peranakan. The Peranakan retained most of their ethnic and religious origins (ancestor worship), but assimilated the language and culture of the Malays. They developed a unique culture and distinct foods. Numerous sources claim that the early Peranakan inter-married with the local Malay population; this might derive from the fact that some of the servants who settled in Bukit Cina that travelled to Malacca with the Admiral from Yunnan were Muslim Chinese. However, the general lack of physical resemblance has led many experts to believe that the Peranakan Chinese ethnicity has hardly diluted. Some Peranakan distinguish between Peranakan-Baba (those Peranakan with part Malay ancestry) from Peranakan (those without any Malay ancestry). The Peranakan often sent their sons and daughters to China to look for spouses. Also, the religion of the local Malay population was Islam which forbids inter-marriage with other religions without conversion first. In the early 1800s, new Chinese immigrants to the Straits Settlements bolstered the Peranakan population.

Over the centuries, the Peranakans have evolved a unique culture that maintains many Chinese traditions, such as celebrating the Lunar New Year and the Lantern Festival, while adopting the customs of the land they settled in, as well as those of their successive colonial rulers. There are traces of Portuguese, Dutch, British, Malay and Indonesian influences in Baba culture.

By the middle of the twentieth century, most Peranakan were English educated, as a result of the British colonisation of Malaya, and the natural propensity of these people who were able to easily embrace new cultures. Because the Peranakans readily embraced English culture and education, administrative and civil service posts were often filled by prominent Straits Chinese. The interaction with the British also caused many in the community to convert to Christianity. The Peranakan community thereby became very influential in Malacca and Singapore and were known also as the King's Chinese due to their perceived loyalty to the British Crown. Because of the interaction of the different cultures and languages that Peranakans had, most Peranakans were (and still are) trilingual, being able to converse with Chinese, Malays and the British. Common vocations were as merchants, traders, and general intermediaries between China, Malaya and the West; the latter was especially valued by the British, since the Babas also enjoyed good relations with the Malay community and served as advisors to the royal Malay courts. In fact the term "Baba" is an honorific term in Malay; probably derived from Hindi/Sanskrit [Baba: literally means grandfather or father, and is used as a term of reverence and affection for an elderly gentleman].

Culture: Historical and cultural items from the Baba culture are displayed in cultural establishments on Heeren Street, Jonker Street and other streets in the same neighbourhood in Malacca and in Penang in Malaysia, and at the Peranakan Museum in Singapore. There one can find museums displaying furniture, food stuff, and even traditional clothes of the Baba and Nonya. There are also a small number of "Nyonya" restaurants in Singapore, Penang, Malacca, and the West. Free weekly street shows featuring Baba performances, and traditional and pop Chinese cultural performances are found in Jonker Street in Malacca (Melaka). The shows are part of the night market scene, and are usually crowded with shoppers, both local and foreign.

The Peranakans were partially assimilated into the Malay culture (especially in food, dress, and language), while retaining some Chinese traditions (religion, name, and ethnic identity), thereby creating a fusion culture of their own. For instance, from their Malay influence, a unique "Nyonya" cuisine has developed using the spices of Malay cuisine (examples are Chicken Kapitan, a dry chicken curry, and Inchi Kabin, a Nyonya version of fried chicken). The women (Nyonyas) have taken to wearing the baju kebaya (a Malay dress, seen most notably as the uniform of Malaysia and Singapore Airlines' female flight attendants), and beaded slippers called Kasut Manek. Traditionally these exquisitely-crafted footwears were typically hand-made, and worn by Nonyas. Making kasut maneks required much patience, as in the past they are strung, beaded and sewn onto canvas with tiny facetted glass beads from Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic). In modern times, glass beads from Japan are preferred. Traditional kasut manek design often have European floral subjects, with colours influenced by the hues of Peranakan porcelain and batik sarongs. They were made onto flats or bedroom slippers. But from the 1930s, modern shapes became popular and heels were added.

Proposals of marriage were made by a gift of a "pinangan", a 2-tiered lacquered basket to the intended bride's parents brought by a go-between person who will speak on behalf of the suitor. However, most of the Peranakans are not Muslim, and have retained the traditions of ancestor worship of the Chinese; though some converted to Christianity. The wedding ceremony of the Peranakan is largely based on Chinese tradition, and is one of the most colorful and fascinating wedding ceremonies in Malaysia and Singapore. At weddings, the Dondang Sayang, a form of extempore rhyming song in Malay, sung and danced by guests at the wedding party was a highlight. Someone would start on a romantic theme which will be carried on by others, each taking the floor in turn slowly dancing in slow gyrations as they sang, It required quick wit and repartee and often gave rise to laughter and applause when a particularly clever phrase was sung. The melodic accents of the Baba-Nonya and their quaint turns of phrase lend to the charm of this performance.

Peranakan culture is disappearing. Without colonial British support for their perceived racial neutrality, government policies in both countries following independence from the British have resulted in the assimilation of Peranakans back into mainstream Chinese culture. In Singapore, the Peranakans are classified as ethnically Chinese, so they receive formal instruction in Mandarin Chinese as a second language (in accordance with the "Mother Tongue Policy") instead of Malay. In Malaysia, the standardization of Malay as Bahasa Melayu — required for all ethnic groups — has led to a disappearance of the unique characteristics of Baba Malay.

The migration of some Peranakan families, particularly the well-to-do ones, has led to a small Peranakan diaspora in neighbouring countries, from Vietnam to Australia. However, these communities are very small, and with the increasing use of the various languages in their respective countries, the use of Peranakan Malay or Baba Malay will be diluted.

 

The Straits Chinese: A Cultural History by Khoo Joo Ee

 

 

 

The Nyonya Kebaya: A Century of Straits Chinese Costume by Datin Seri

 

 

 

Straits Chinese House Domestic by Peter Lee

 

 

 

Peranakan Chinese Porcelain: Vibrant Festive Ware of the Straits Chinese by Kee Ming-Yuet

 

 

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Thai Chinese

The Thai Chinese are an overseas Chinese community who live in Thailand. Official statistics show that six million people in 1987, or about 14% of Thailand's population claim to be of Chinese ethnicity. Extensive intermarriages with the Thais, especially in the past has resulted in many people who claim Chinese ethnicity with Thai ancestry, or mixed. People of Chinese descent are concentrated in the coastal areas of Thailand, principally Bangkok. They are well-represented in all levels of Thai society and play a leading role in business and politics.

Slightly more than half of the ethnic Chinese population in Thailand trace their ancestry to the Chaozhou prefecture in northern Guangdong. This is evidenced by the prevalence of the Minnan Chaozhou dialect among the Chinese in Thailand. A minority trace their ancestry to Hakka and Hainanese immigrants.

Most ethnic Chinese in Thailand are proficient in the Thai language, and a large number are also conversant in Chinese with varying degrees of fluency. In general, ethnic Chinese use Thai as a working language, while Chinese is spoken at home and with relatives. Assimilated Thais of Chinese ancestry, on the other hand, have since used Thai in everyday life and are much less adept in Chinese. The Teochew dialect of Chinese is used as a commercial lingua franca among the Chinese business circles, principally in Bangkok.

The proficiency of the Thai language among the ethnic Chinese is attributed to the fact that Thai is a compulsory subject in all schools, while students from Chinese-medium schools are more proficient in Chinese than those from other schools in general. In recent years, many Chinese have also used Mandarin for communication among the Chinese in Thailand.

History: The history of Chinese immigration to Thailand dates back many centuries. Chinese traders in Thailand, mostly from Fujian and Guangdong, began arriving in Ayutthaya by at least the thirteenth century. According to the Chronicles of Ayutthaya, it was mentioned that King Ekathotsarot (r. 1605-1610) had been "concerned solely with ways of enriching his treasury," and was "greatly inclined toward strangers and foreign nations," especially Portugal, Spain, the Philippines, China, and Japan.

Ayutthaya was under almost constant Burmese threat from the 16th century onwards, and Qianlong, the Emperor of Qing was alarmed by the Burmese military might. From 1766-1769, Qianlong sent his armies four times to subdue the Burmese, but all four invasions failed. Ayutthaya thus fell to the Burmese in 1767. The Chinese efforts diverted the attention of Burma's Siam army, General Taksin, who was the son of a Chinese immigrant, took advantage of the situation by organizing his force and attacking them. Taksin actively encouraged Chinese immigration and trade. Settlers principally from Chaozhou prefecture came in large numbers.

The Chinese population in Thailand jumped from 230,000 in 1825 to 792,000 by 1910. By 1932, approximately 12.2% of the population of Thailand was Chinese.

However, early Chinese immigration consisted almost entirely of Chinese men who married Thai women. Children of such intermarriages were aptly called Sino-Thai or known as Luk-jin (ลูกจีน) in Thai. This tradition of Chinese-Thai intermarriage declined when large numbers of Chinese women began to emigrate into Thailand in the early 20th century.

The corruption of the Qing Dynasty and the massive population increase in China, along with very high taxes, caused many men to leave China for Thailand in search of work. If successful, they sent money back to their families in China. Many Chinese prospered under the "tax farming" system, whereby private individuals were sold the right to collect taxes at a price below the value of the tax revenues.

In the late 1800s, when Thailand was busy defending its independence from the colonial powers, Chinese bandits from Yunnan Province began raids into the country in the Haw wars (Thai: ปราบกบฏฮ่อ). Thai nationalist attitudes at all levels were accordingly colored by anti-Chinese sentiment. Members of the Chinese community had long dominated domestic commerce and had served as agents for the royal trade monopolies. With the rise of European economic influence, however, many Chinese shifted to the opium traffic and tax collecting, both of which were despised occupations. In addition, Chinese millers and rice traders were blamed for an economic recession that gripped Siam for nearly a decade after 1905. Accusations of bribery of officials, wars between the Chinese secret societies, and use of violent tactics to collect taxes served to foster Thai resentment against the Chinese at a time when the community was expanding rapidly due to immigration.

By 1910, nearly 10 percent of Thailand's population was Chinese. Moreover, the new arrivals frequently came in families and resisted assimilation. Chinese nationalism, encouraged by Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Chinese revolution, had also begun to develop, parallel with Thai nationalism. The Chinese community even supported a separate school system for its children.

Legislation by King Rama VI (1910-1925) that required the adoption of Thai surnames was largely directed at easing tensions with Chinese community by encouraging assimilation. Thai Chinese had to choose between forsaking their Chinese identity or being regarded as foreigners. Most opted to become Thai.

A number of ethnic Chinese families left Burma between 1930 and 1950 and settled in the Ratchaburi and Kanchanaburi Provinces of Western Thailand. A few of the ethnic Chinese families in that area had already emigrated from Burma in the 19th century. Ethnic Chinese families can be recognized by the shrines in their homes and shops, which are mostly located straight on the ground and painted in red, decorated with gold tinsel and small red lamps.

The Chinese in Thailand also suffered discrimination between the 1930s to 1950s under the military dictatorship of Prime Minister Plaek Pibulsonggram, (in spite of being part-Chinese himself). State corporations took over commodities such as rice, tobacco and petroleum, and Chinese businesses found themselves subject to a range of new taxes and controls.

Nevertheless, the Chinese were still encouraged to become Thai citizens, and by 1970 it was estimated that more than 90 percent of the Chinese born in Thailand had done so. When diplomatic relations were established with China in the 1970s, resident Chinese not born in Thailand were offered the chance of becoming Thai citizens. The remaining permanent resident Chinese alien population was then estimated at less than 200,000.

Dialect Groups: The vast majority of the Thai Chinese belong to various southern Chinese dialect groups. Of these, 56% are Teochew (also commonly spelled as Teochiu), 16% Hakka and 11% Hainanese. The Cantonese and Hokkien each constitute 7% of the Chinese population, and 3% belong to other Chinese dialect groups.

The Teochews mainly settled around Chao Phraya River in Bangkok. Many of them worked in government sectors, while others were involved in trade. During the reign of King Taksin, some influential Teochew traders were granted certain privileges. These traders were called "Royal Chinese" (Jin-luang in Thai).

The Hokkiens constitute the largest dialect group among the Chinese in Songkhla and Phuket, while the Hakkas are mainly concentrated in Chiang Mai, Phuket, and Central Western provinces. The Hakka own many private banks in Thailand, notably Kasikorn Bank.

A large number of Thai Chinese are the descendants of intermarriages between Chinese immigrants and Thais, while there are others who are of predominantly or solely of Chinese descent. People who are of mainly Chinese descent are descendants of immigrants who relocated to Thailand as well as other parts of Nanyang (the Chinese term for Southeast Asia used at the time) in the early to mid 20th century due to famine and civil war in the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong (Teochew, Cantonese, Hainan, Hakka groups) and Fujian (Hokkien, Hakka). Among the ethnic Chinese, assimilation and adoption of Thai culture tends to take place among the Chinese who have a significant amount of Thai ancestry.

In the southern Thai provinces, notably the Chinese community in Phuket Province, the assimilated group is known as Peranakans. These people share a similar culture and identity with the Peranakan Chinese in neighboring Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. Ethnic Chinese in the Malay-dominated provinces in the south used Malay, rather than Thai as their lingua franca, and occasionally intermarry with the local Malays.

Substantial numbers of Chinese people of (mainly) Yunnanese descent can be found in villages around Chiang Rai Province. These are descendants of Kuomintang soldiers who fought against the Chinese Communist soldiers in the 1940s, before fleeing to the northern regions and settling among the local people. The Chinese Muslim community, also known as Haw or Hui settled in parts of northern Thailand during the years of the Panthay Rebellion, who eventually formed a distinct community in Chiangmai by the late 1890s.

Ethnic Concentrations

• Teochew
• Hakka
• Hainanese
• Cantonese
• Hokkien

Surnames: Thai Chinese can often be recognized by having a surname containing the original Chinese name or its translation. In former prime minister Banharn Silpa-Archa's name, Archa (horse) is the translation of the Chinese surname Ma (馬). Another example is Sondhi Limthongkul, where Lim is the Hainanese pronunciation of the Chinese surname Lin (林). Many Thai Chinese adopted long surnames to mimic the royal names formerly given to high officials by the kings. Ethnic Thais tend to have shorter surnames, though many have now changed them to longer ones. Thai Chinese generally adopted Thai surnames to avoid persecution by assimilating into society. When choosing a surname, they would often combine auspicious Thai words with their original Chinese surname.

 

 

Yaowarat Road

Yaowarat Road: Bangkok's Chinatown is centered on Yaowarat Road (เยาวราช) in Samphanthawong district.

The Chinatown is an old business center covering a large area around Yaowarat and Charoen Krung Road. There are many small streets and alleys full of shops and vendors selling all types of goods. It has been the main centre for trading by the Chinese community since they moved from their old site some 200 years ago. Nearby Phahurat or Indian market. Yaowarat Road is also famous for many varieties of delicious foods, and become foods street in the night.

History of Bangkok's Chinatown: Chinatown is located in one of the oldest areas of Bangkok. It was set up by Chinese traders who came in junks to trade with Thailand (Siam) during the Rattanakosin period, about 1700s. By the end of 1891, King Rama V had demanded many roads to be built, and Yaowarat Road is one of them. Chinatown does not consist of only Yaowarat Road, but also includes others such as: Charoen Krung Road, Mungkorn Road, Songwat Road, Songsawat Road, Chakkrawat Road, etc. Yaowarat is the center of the area. The path of the road is said to be like the dragon's curvy body, making it an auspicious location for business. Visitors can find leading gold shops, garments, textiles, stationery, souvenirs, second-hand parts and equipment, electric goods, computer parts, antiques, imported musical instruments, and local delicacies at a bargain, often at wholesale prices. Year 2003 marked the 111th anniversary of this legendary road.

Land prices around Yaowarat Road traditionally been the priciest in Bangkok and Thailand, but now become the second most expensive after the land around famous shopping centers complex of Siam Square.

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Limahong

Map of the Philippines with Pangasinan highlighted

Limahong, Lim Ah Hong or also called Lin Feng (林風) was a notorious Chinese pirate and warlord who invaded the northern Philippine Islands in 1574. He built up a reputation for his constant raids to ports in Guangdong, Fujian and southern China. He is noted to have twice attempted, and failed, to overthrow the Spanish city of Manila in 1574.

Birth and Origins: Born Dim Mhon to a poor family in the city of Tru Cheo (Teochew) in the province of Cuy Tan (called Catim by the Portuguese during the middle of the 16th century). Known to be called Limahong, he had an early start in criminal activity and progressed to piracy becoming leader of around 2000 pirates. His activities and attacks on ports and ships throughout southern China increased and a warrant was issued by the authorities to capture him alive and send him to the city of Tay Bin. He was married to Nataracy.

He shifted his activities to piracy on the high seas and out of reach of China's power. He was able to accumulate up to 40 ships, whereupon he once again raided cities and ports in southern China. Limahong attacked a city occupied by Vinh To Quiam, another pirate, but Vinh was able to escape along with 5 of Limahong's ships. However, Limahong was able to capture 55 of Vinh's fleet and thus increased his own to 95 ships. He was now a veritable king of the high seas of southern China.

In late 1573, he gathered an army of 3,000 Chinese warriors, renegades and vagabonds and fled to the island of Luzon. There, he and his band of outlaws sought refuge, established their own kingdom and waged war with the Spaniards.

By this time, a force of 40,000 soldiers and 135 ships was sent by the Chinese to kill and capture Limahong. Limahong and his troops first arrived in Ilocos Sur in early 1574 where they quarrelled with the Spanish commander, Juan de Salcedo. After a brief struggle with the Spanish army, his troops were driven away from the city. The pirates then chanced upon merchant ships from Manila doing trade with the Chinese and learned from 2 captured ships that Manila was a new and relatively unprotected Spanish settlement. From this information and knowing that China had a no-war policy with its neighbors during that time, he decided to capture Manila and establish himself as ruler of his would-be kingdom and stronghold.

Limahong in Pangasinan: Foiled at Manila to establish a kingdom of his own, Limahong set sail for the Lingayen Gulf, to settle in Pangasinan province. Thinking this to be a rich place and far enough from the reach of the Spaniards and the Chinese emperor, Limahong resolved to stay here and to make himself master of the region.

Near the mouth of the Agno River about four miles from the sea he built a fort consisting of an outer palisade of palm logs, and an inner enclosure of palm planks which sheltered his palace. He also built pagodas and dwelling places preparatory for permanent settlement.

Limahong announced to the people that he had conquered the Spaniards and that he had come to rule over them as their king. They were commanded to pay tributes to him.

Thereupon, great terror and fright filled all the neighboring villages, and all of them, with no exception, received Limahong as king, and they obeyed him and paid him tributes. To make matters worse for the natives, he seized their principal chiefs and held them as hostages.

The Spaniards could not tolerate the presence of this Chinese corsair in their neighborhood. A scout ship had been sent by Governor Lavezares to follow the pirate fleet and it soon returned and reported where it had gone. An expedition of 256 Spaniards and about 2,500 Filipino troops, including the Rajah Lakandula of Tondo and his sons, set sail in 59 vessels for Lingayen on the 23rd of March, 1575.

In Pangasinan, the motley army was swelled by the addition of some companies of Pangasinan soldiers. They crossed the bar of the Agno River on the 30th of March, 1574, their presence unsuspected by the Chinese.

Captain Juan de Salcedo had been appointed Field Marshal in place of Martin de Goiti. He was assisted by Captain Lorenzo Chacon, Pedro de Chavez, and Gabriel de Rivera (sic). Salcedo noted on entering the river, a narrow place where the channel could easily be blocked. He stayed there in order to prevent the escape of the pirates. He ordered Captain Gabriel de Rivera and his company of 28 men to march immediately by land, and Captains Pedro de Chavez and Lorenzo Chacon to sail with 9 small boats and 80 men to ascend the river and to capture Chinese vessels with the Spanish fleet. The time was to be appointed so that both the land and the sea forces would arrive at the fort at the same instant, and make assault at the same time, so that they might be better successful in their purpose. Salcedo was to remain behind with all the rest of the forces to await the opportunity of furnishing aid in any emergency.

The river detachment met 35 vessels of the Chinese fleet sailing out to collect provisions. They were entirely unaware of the presence of the enemy in the vicinity, and when the Spaniards opened fire with their arquebuses, the pirates turned and fled grounding the ships at the river bank near the fort and then jumping overboard to escape the Spaniards, whom they outnumbered ten to one.

Destruction of the Chinese Fleet: The balance of the Chinese fleet which was just father up the river was tied up near the river bank with only the crews on board. When these sailors saw their comrades fleeing for their lives, they followed, and the entire fleet was abandoned to the Spaniards. During the melee, one of the vessels caught fire and before anything could be done, the Chinese fleet of over 60 vessels was already in flames.

The land party on the other hand, had forced an entrance into the back side of the port, capturing more than seventy women whom they found within the palisade, besides killing more than one hundred Chinese. Shortly after the Spaniards gained entrance, the fort was put into flames, whether by Chinese or by native auxiliaries could not be determined.

The river party joined in the attack on the fort. But the flames blowing into the faces of the attackers make progress difficult. The inner fort remained inviolate. The attackers stayed and blockaded the inner fort with an aim to starve the Chinese occupants inside. But thirst instead set in among them as the only water available in the fort was only from a small brackish well. Many of them left their ranks to collect loot and slaves.

A Beleaguered Fort: Limahong with his men constructed some boats inside the fort out of the half burnt remnants of his fleet which his men had brought into the fort at night without being detected by the Spaniards. The Chinese had made good use of the blockade also which lasted for three months by repairing the breaches on the walls and the damage of the fire which almost gutted his inner fort.

Under such circumstances, Salcedo's effort to blockade the Chinese fort seemed fruitless. A Council of War was called to plan other means to expel the Chinese from their fort. It was decided that the Spanish force should retire to an island in the river to make their blockade more effective.

The Chinese were exactly opposite the island, that is, they were north of it, in the words of Francisco de Sande. But what is more interesting is the fact that the island was within cannon shot of the fort; and one morning the Chinese trained the captured cannon Vigilantib on the camp and shattered the leg of standard bearer of Salcedo.

The Elusive Limahong: His Escape: The blockade seemed to be fruitless. Neither side would take the risk of decisive operations and the war degenerated into skirmishes between small bodies of Spaniards and some parties of Chinese going out for provisions to cut wood.

During this period, the pirate Limahong began the construction of thirty vessels within the fort, and as all his soldiers were good workmen, the project was completed on August 4, 1575.

At noon, on the same day, he set sail for his country after having been besieged within the fortification for over four months. This development took the Spaniards by surprise. They were astonished to see Limahong sailing out of fort through a channel which was unknown to them. It was believed and is still current among the natives of the locality, that Limahong constructed this channel with the utmost secrecy without either the land or sea force hearing it.

As a last effort to cut down Limahong, the ingenious Salcedo ordered his soldiers to drive stakes into the bed of the river where Limahong's ships were sure to pass. While on both banks of the river he had his men concealed ready to subject the pirates to a blinding fire.

Limahong finally arrived at the particular spot where the stakes were driven. Here, amidst blinding fires, Limahong had ropes fastened about the shoulders of his men and at the point of the sword, they were forced to go overboard. Then wrapping arms and legs about the stakes to act as human grappling hooks, the Chinese began their ugly job of pulling the stakes.

Thus, the unhappy wretches in the water, in addition to being almost pulled limb to limb in an effort to dislodge the stakes, were subjected to the fires of the Spanish arms. With great difficulty, enough stakes were removed and the pirate ships escaped to the China Sea passing through the mouth of the Agno River between Lingayen and Labrador. Limahong slipped, and made a wild dash for liberty out into the China Sea toward his former lair, reaching the island of Tocaotican "where he had sought refuge, dying of melancholy because of his reverses."

A Belated "Visitor": Shortly after the escape of Limahong from Pangasinan, Captain Omoncon, who was commissioned by his emperor to capture Limahong dead or alive, arrived in Philippine waters and encountered the Spanish soldiers at Bolinao, Pangasinan.

Upon being informed that Limahong escaped from Pangasinan in unworthy vessels out into the stormy China Sea with a slim chance to survive, he was very much overjoyed. From Pangasinan, Captain Omoncon went to Manila accompanied by Field Marshal Salcedo where the former was dined and entertained.

To cap it all, the governor ordered Salcedo and the soldiers to deliver to Captain Omoncon all Chinese pirates captured in Pangasinan, binding himself to pay to the soldiers to whom such belonged the appraised value of the captives.

This done, he ordered everything necessary for the voyage to be fully prepared, which was done within a few days. In return for all this kindness, Captain Omoncon agreed to take along with him to China some Augustinian fathers to spread Roman Catholicism. He finally departed with the fathers amidst the salvo of good-will and friendship.

Limahong's Legacy to Pangasinan: The province of Pangasinan will never forget this pirate prince, this blood-thirsty corsair who invaded her shore almost without warning. Like an ominous cloud above he held a part of her territory with a mighty sweep of the sword exacting heavy tributes and imprisoning the once proud and lordly local chieftains as hostages.

Today, many of the native Pangasinenses possess some tint of Chinese blood in their veins, and they are still distinguishable by their oblique eyes and light yellow complexion. Many of the most thrifty and most intelligent citizens of Lingayen and other towns in this part of the province and along the Agno River are of Chinese ancestry.

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Culture

Teochew culture is indispensable in constructing the single cultural entity in Guangdong Province, and is known worldwide as a unique part of world heritage. Throughout the lengthy history of over 1000 years, the region of Chaoshan, anciently named Teochew Prefecture, has bred and evolved a prestigious culture, which manifests its unique characteristics in language, opera, cuisine, tea practice, music and embroidery.

Chaozhou Dialect (潮州話), in/through which Teochew culture is conveyed, is considered one of the oldest Chinese dialects for it preserves many elegant and refined features from ancient Chinese that have been lost in some counterparts. It is spoken by roughly 10 million people in Chaoshan and more than 5 million outside the Chinese mainland.

Teochew opera (潮劇) is a traditional art form which has a history of more than 500 years and is now loved by 20 million Teochew people in over 20 countries and regions. Based on the local folk dances and ballads, Teochew opera has formed its own style under the influence of Nanxi Opera. Nanxi is one of the oldest Chinese operas that originated in the Song Dynasty. Its tunes are graceful and pleasant, full of local colour. The old form of choral accompaniment still preserves its special features. Clowns and females are the most distinctive characters in a Teochew opera, and fan-playing and acrobatic skills are more prominent than in other types of performances.

Gongfu tea (工夫茶), the 'espresso' of Chinese teas with a formidable kick, which was first sipped back in the Song Dynasty, is still flourishing and standing as an important part of social etiquette in Chaoshan. It is not uncommon that the tea ritual is practised in an ordinary Teochew household on a day-to-day basis. Although it tastes bitter when it first reaches the mouth, it is the lingering aftertaste that makes Ganghu tea probably the most charming tea culture in China. Drinking Ganghu tea, in this sense, is a form of art rather than an antidote to thirst.

Teochew music (潮州音樂) is popularly played in Chaoshan's teahouse scene. The Teochew string instrument, gong, drum and traditional Chinese flute, are typically involved in the form of ensemble. The current Chaozhou drum music is said to be similar to the form of the Drum and Wind Music of the Han and Tang Dynasties.

 

 

Swatow Ware

Swatow Ware from the Binh Thuan Wreck

Swatow ware or Swatow is a common name for a group of mainly late Ming Dynasty export porcelain from China intended for the South East Asian market.

One of the probable reasons for this trade developing out of Swatow, or present-day Shantou, has to do with the disproportionately large numbers of ethnic Chinese migrating to South East Asia from Guangdong and neighboring Fujian Province. Their presence in South East Asia is still very much palpable, especially in Singapore and the Malaysian cities of Penang and Malacca.

The name Swatow is rendered in Teochew, or Chao Zhou dialect, belonging to a relatively small group of ethnic Chinese that reside within present-day Canton, or Guang Dong Province. Linguistically though, the dialect has more in common with the dialect of Fujian Province. Swatow literally means: mountain head; head of the mountain.

The name may be claimed to be misleading as the exact location of the kilns are as yet largely unidentified. However, they are generally thought to be located in the vicinity of what was formerly known as the port of Swatow (now Shantou) on the northern coast of the Guangdong region.

Swatow ware is generally coarse, crudely potted and often under fired. Decoration in blue and white is by far the most common, although many polychrome wares, mainly with iron red and green overglaze decorations, are known.

 

Chinese Trade Ceramics for Southeast Asia, I-XVII Centuries: Collection of Ambassador and Mrs. Charles Muller by Monique Crick

 

 

 

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Teochew Cuisine

Chiuchow cuisine, Teochew cuisine or Chaozhou cuisine or Chaoshan cuisine (潮州菜) originates from Chaoshan, a region of China in the easternmost area of the Guangdong Province. However, Chaozhou cuisine is closer to Fujian cuisine and even shares many of the same dishes. This is likely due to its neighboring location and also the closely related culture. Chaoshan emcompasses the prefecture-level cities of Chaozhou, Shantou and Jieyang. The region's cuisine is often mistakenly labelled as "Cantonese cuisine".

Chaozhou cuisine is particularly well known for its seafood and vegetarian dishes and is commonly regarded as being healthy. Its use of flavoring is much less heavy-handed than most other Chinese cuisines and depends much on the freshness and quality of the ingredients for taste and flavor. As a delicate cuisine, oil is not often used in large quantities and there is a relatively heavy emphasis on poaching, steaming and braising. Chaozhou cuisine is also known for serving rice soup (潮州糜 or mue) in addition to steamed rice or noodles with meals. The Chaozhou mue is rather different from Cantonese porridge or congee. The former is very watery with the rice sitting loosely at the bottom of the bowl.

Authentic Chaozhou restaurants serve very strong Oolong tea called Tieguanyin in very tiny cups before and after the meal. This is Gongfu cha and is a very strong tea which has a bittersweet taste, called gam gam (甘甘).

A condiment that is commonly associated with Chaozhou cuisine is Shacha sauce. This popular paste is also used in Fujian and Taiwanese cuisine. It is made from soybean oil, garlic, shallots, chilis, brill fish, and dried shrimp. The paste has a savory and slightly spicy taste. As an ingredient, it has multiple uses:

Chaozhou chefs often use a special stock called shang tang (上湯). This stock remains on the stove and is continuously replenished. One Hong Kong chef allegedly has used the same shang tang for over fifty years. You will see this stock on Chaozhou TV in their cooking programmes, even today.

There is a famous feast in Chaozhou cuisine / banquet called "jiat dot" (食桌) which literally means "food table". A myriad dishes are often served, which include shark fins soup, bird's nest soup, lobster, steam fish and braised goose.

Chaozhou chefs pride themselves on their skill in vegetable carving, and carved vegetables are used as garnishes on cold dishes and on the banquet table.

Chaozhou is also known for a late night dinner called "Da Leng" (打冷). Chaozhou people enjoy eating out in restaurants or at roadside food stalls close to midnight before they go to bed. Some restaurants stay open till dawn.

Unlike the typical menu selections of many other Chinese cuisines, Chaozhou restaurant menus often have a dessert section.

Many people of Chaozhou, also known as Teochiu or Teochew, heritage have settled in Southeast Asia during the Chinese Diaspora, especially Singapore and Thailand; influences can be noted in the cuisine of Singapore. This review article illustrates a Teochew Noodles House in Singapore. A large number of Teochew people have also settled in Taiwan, evident in Taiwanese cuisine.

 

Some famous Chaozhou dishes include, among others:

• Braised goose (滷鵝; Lou Gho)

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Sir Ka-shing Li

Sir Ka-shing Li (李嘉誠), is a wealthy businessman from Hong Kong. He is the richest person of Chinese descent in the world and the eleventh richest man in the world according to Forbes with an estimated wealth of US$26.5 billion on 5 March 2008. Presently, he is the Chairman of Hutchison Whampoa Limited (HWL) and Cheung Kong Holdings; through them, he is the world's largest operator of container terminals and the world's largest health and beauty retailer.

Considered one of the most powerful figures in Asia, Li was named "Asia's Most Powerful Man" by Asiaweek in 2001. Forbes Magazine and the Forbes family honored Li Ka-shing with the first ever "Malcolm S. Forbes Lifetime Achievement Award" on September 5, 2006, in Singapore. In spite of his wealth, Li has a reputation for leading a no-frills lifestyle, and is known to wear simple black dress shoes and an inexpensive Seiko wristwatch. Li is also regarded as one of Asia's most generous philanthropists, donating over US$1 billion to date to charity and other various philanthropic causes.

Li is often referred to as "Superman" in Hong Kong because of his business prowess.

Li Ka-shing was born in Chaozhou in the Guangdong Province, China in 1928. In 1940 the Li family fled to Hong Kong to avoid the turmoils in China. Li's family stayed at the home of his wealthy uncle. The arrogance of Li's uncle with his immense wealth ignited Li's determination to make a place for himself in the world.

Li's father died in Hong Kong. Shouldering the responsibility of looking after the livelihood of the family, Li was forced to leave school before the age of 15 and found a job in a plastics trading company where he labored 16 hours a day. By 1950 he was able to start his own company, Cheung Kong Industries. From manufacturing plastics, Li led and developed his company into a leading real estate investment company in Hong Kong that was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange in 1972. Cheung Kong expanded by acquiring Hutchison Whampoa and Hongkong Electric Holdings Limited in 1979 and 1985 respectively.