DNA Profiles of "Han" Taiwanese

TaiwanDNA.com Homepage

Jong Lin

 

Autosomal STR Analysis by DNA Tribes

Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

Global Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui Chinese Muslim (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

World Region Match: Chinese, Tibetan, Japanese, Mongolian, Southeast Asian, India Tribal, India, Malay Archipelago, North India, Asia Minor, North African, Mediterranean, Arabian, Polynesian.

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Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

 

Salar

(Photo from paulnoll.com)

The Salar people (撒拉族) are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They numbered 104,503 people in the last census of 2000 and live mostly in Qinghai (in Xunhua Salar Autonomous County 循化撒拉族自治縣 and Hualong Autonomous County of the Hui Nationality 化隆回族自治縣), in Gansu (in Jishishan Autonomous County of the Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Nationalities 積石山保安族東鄉族撒拉族自治縣) and in Xinjiang (in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture 伊犁哈薩克自治州).

Their ancestors were migrating Oghuz Turks who intermarried with the Tibetans, Han Chinese, and Hui. They are a patriarchal agricultural society and Muslims.

The Salar people had resided in China's Qinghai Province since the beginning of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the early 13th century. During the time of Genghis Khan's conquest, they were known as the Salyr tribe of Khorasan. One Salyr chief agreed to submit his lieutenants Aqman and Qaraman as mercenaries to the Mongol army. In this way, these Turkmen Salyrs were spared the destruction which was brought upon the Khwarezmian Empire by the Mongol army. Forty years after Genghis Khan's conquest of Khwarezm, the Salyr lietenants Aqman and Qaraman also joined the Mongols in the Seige of Diaoyu in Sichuan, a Song Dynasty stronghold. Afterwards, Qaraman and his folowers left Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan and settled in the region of Qinghai in what is known today as the Xunhua County. His followers still retained their Turkic language which is now known as the Salar language.

According to Salar tradition, during the fourteenth and fifthteenth centuries their ancestors, possibly from an Oghuz tribe of the Seljuk Turk, left Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan and eventually settled in their present location in Gansu province. Over the course of their history, the ancestors of the Salar are believed to have merged with Tibetans, Han Chinese and Mongolians to form the present-day Salar.

In 1781, Qing armies crushed a Salar uprising with the results being disastrous for the Salar. As much as 40% of their entire population was killed in the revolt.

The Dungan Revolt was a religious war. It also known as the Hui Minorities' War and the Muslim Rebellion. The term is sometimes used to refer to the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan as well. It was an uprising by members of the Hui and other Muslim ethnic groups in China's Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces, as well as in Xinjiang, between 1862 and 1877.

The purpose of this uprising was to develop a Muslim country in the western bank of Yellow River (Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia excluding the Xinjing province). Some people say it was directed against the Qing Dynasty, but there is no evidence at all showing they intent to attack the capital of Beijing. The uprising was actively encouraged by the leaders of the Taiping Rebellion. When it failed, it instigated immigration of some of the Dungan people into Imperial Russia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Before the war, the population of Shaanxi province was about 13 million, minimum 1,750,000 are Dungan (Hui). After the war, the population dropped to 7 million, 150,000 fled, left to between 50,000, the rest are died in ten years. Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi province, was the Holy city of Dungan (Hui) in China before the revolt. But once-flourishing Chinese Muslim communities fell 93% in the revolt in Shaanxi province. Between 1648 and 1878, around twelve million Hui and Han Chinese were killed in ten unsuccessful uprisings.

 

Map of Uzbekistan

 

Map of Qinghai

 

 

* Sequence-length Variation of mtDNA HVS-I C-stretch in Chinese Ethnic Groups by Feng Chen, et al.

NJ Tree of Nine Populations Based on Fst Distance

(Salar, Han - South)

 

Principal Component (PC) Map of Nine Populations Based on the Distance Matrix

(Salar, Han - South)

 

 

Hui

Dungan girls in Shor-Tyube, Kazakhstan.

The Hui people (回族 ) are a Chinese ethnic group, typically distinguished by their practice of Islam.

The term "Hui people" refers to one of the officially recognized 56 ethnic groups into which Chinese citizens are classified. Under this definition, the Hui people are defined to include all historically Muslim communities in People's Republic of China that are not included in China's other ethnic groups. Since China's Muslims speaking various Turkic, Mongolian, or Iranian languages are all included into those other groups (e.g., Uyghurs, Tajiks, or Dongxiang), the "officially recognized" Hui ethnic group consists predominantly of Chinese speakers. In fact, the "Hui nationality" is unique among China's officially recognized ethnic minorities in that it does not have any particular non-Chinese language associated with it.

Nonetheless, included among the Hui in Chinese census statistics (and not officially recognized as separate ethnic groups) are members of a few small non-Chinese speaking communities. Among them are several thousand Utsuls in southern Hainan province, who speak an Austronesian language (Tsat) related to that of the Cham Muslim minority of Vietnam, and who are said to be descended from Chams who migrated to Hainan. A small Muslim minority among Yunnan's Bai people are classified as Hui as well (even if they are Bai speakers), as are some groups of Tibetan Muslims.

The Hui people are concentrated in Northwestern China (Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang), but communities exist across the country, e.g. Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Yunnan, etc.

Most Hui are similar in culture to Han Chinese with the exception that they practice Islam, and have some distinctive cultural characteristics as a result. For example, as Muslims, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork, the most common meat consumed in Chinese culture, and have also given rise to their variation of Chinese cuisine, Chinese Islamic cuisine and Muslim Chinese martial arts. Their mode of dress also differs primarily in that men wear white caps and women wear headscarves or (occasionally) veils, as is the case in most Islamic cultures.

The Hui people are mixed blood. Their ancestors include Central Asian, Persian, Han Chinese, and Mongols. In ancient China, e.g. Tang and Yuan Dynasty, lots of people from Central Asian and Persia came to trade or pursue political careers. In the following nearly one thousand years, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Han Chinese, and the Hui people were formed. Because the Hui people have lived in China for so many years, they haven't retained Arabic and Central Asian languages, instead becoming Chinese speakers.

Apart from some minor characteristics, the majority of Hui people look much like Han Chinese, especially in eastern China.

During the mid-nineteenth century, the Muslims and the Miao people of China revolted against the Qing Dynasty, most notably in the Dungan revolt (1862-1877) and the Panthay rebellion 1856-1873) in Yunnan. These little known revolts were suppressed by the Manchu government in a manner that amounts to genocide, killing a million people in the Panthay rebellion, several million in the Dungan revolt and five million in the suppression of Miao people in Guizhou. A "washing off the Muslims"(洗回 (xi Hui)) policy had been long advocated by officials in the Manchu government.

 

 

* Genetic Relationships among Japanese, Northern Han, Hui, Uygur, Kazakh, Greek, Saudi Arabian, and Italian Populations Based on Allelic Frequencies at Four VNTR (D1S80, D4S43, COL2A1, D17S5) and One STR (ACTBP2) Loci by Yoshihiko Katsuyamaa, et al.

Excerpt: Matsumoto showed that Mongoloid populations were characterized by four Gm haplotypes (Gm ag, Gm axg, Gm ab3st, and Gm afb1b3) and could be divided into two groups: A northern group characterized by high frequencies of the haplotypes Gm ag and Gm ab3st and a low frequency of Gm afb1b3, and a southern group characterized by a high frequency of Gm afb1b3 and low frequencies of Gm ag and Gm ab3st. The Japanese and Northern Han belong to the northern group on the basis of these criteria. In contrast, the Hui and Uygur populations showed five Gm haplotypes: Gm fb1b3, characteristic of Caucasoids, in addition to the four Gm haplotypes observed in Mongoloids. The Uygur population was characterized by a high prevalence of the Caucasoid haplotype Gm fb1b3, whereas the Hui population showed a higher frequency of the Mongoloid haplotype Gm afb1b3. As suggested by Matsumoto, the actual genetic distances shown in table  also support the fact that the Hui population is basically Asian with some European admixture (Hui vs. Northern Han and Italian: 0.130 and 0.175), while the Uygur population is basically European with some Asian admixture (Uygur vs. Northern Han and Italian: 0.150 and 0.149).

 

* Genetic Relationship of Populations in China by J. Y. Chu, et al.

Phylogenies Constructed by Using the Neighbor-joining Method Based on 15 Microsatellites

(Ewenki, Hui, Tibetan, Tujia)

 

* Distributions of HLA-A and -B Alleles and Haplotypes in the Yi Ethnic Minority of Yunnan, China: Relationship to other populations by Bo-feng Zhu, et al.

Dendrogram Constructed by the Neighbor-joining Method Showing the Relationship Between Yi Population with Other 27 Populations Based on the Allelic Frequencies of HLA-A and -B Loci

(Mongolian, Hui, Japanese, Korean)

 

* The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity by R. Spencer Wells, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree of 61 Eurasian populations, based on Y-chromosome biallelic haplotype frequencies

(Cluster IV: Kazak, Mongolian, Cambodian, Dungan, Taiwanese, Chinese, Korean, Japanese)

 

 

Islam in Taiwan

Islam originated in Hejaz (Saudi Arabia) and spread eastward to China as early as the 7th century AD. Muslim merchants married local Chinese women, creating a new Chinese ethnic group called the Hui people. Islam is known in Chinese as Huì Jiào (回教 Religion of the Hui) though the term 伊斯蘭教 (Yīsīlán Jiào) is becoming more popular. In China, there are some 20 million Muslims and it is believed to have first reached Taiwan in the 17th century when Muslim families from the southern Chinese coastal province of Fujian accompanied Koxinga on his invasion of Taiwan to oust the Dutch from the southern city of Tainan in 1661. These people are believed to be the first Muslim settlers on the island. Their descendants however became assimilated into Taiwanese society and adopted the local customs and religions. According to Professor Lien Ya Tang (連雅堂) in his book History of Taiwan 《臺灣通史》 (1918), there were few muslims on the island most of whom were from other provinces in China. There was no spread of Islam and no mosques were built.

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Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

 

Evenk

The Evenks or Evenki (Russian: Эвенки Evenki; Chinese: 鄂温克族; formerly known as Tungus or Tunguz) are a Tungusic people of Northern Asia. In Russia, the Evenks are recognized as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North, with a population of 35,527 (2002 Census). In China, the Evenki form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. According to the 2000 Census, there are 30,505 Evenks in China mainly made up of the Solons and the Khamnigans.

Anthropologically the Evenk belong to the Baikal or Paleo-Siberian group of the Mongolian type, originating from the ancient Paleo-Siberian people of the Yenisei River up to the Okhotsk Sea.

The Evenk language is the largest of the northern group of the Manchu-Tungus languages, a group which also includes the Even and Negidal languages.

88.8% of China's Evenks live in the Hulunbuir region in the north of the Inner Mongolia Province, near the city of Hailar. The Evenk Autonomous Banner is also located near Hulunbuir. There are also around 3,000 Evenks in neighbouring Heilongjiang Province (Harbin).

The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu-Tungus, Tungus) are spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria. Although it is a very debated subject, many linguists consider them to be part of the Altaic language phylum, which, if it actually exists as a genetic entity, also includes the Turkic and Mongolic language families. Many Tungusic languages are endangered, and the long-term future of the family is uncertain.

Northern Tungusic

• Evenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Ewenkis in central Siberia and northeastern China and
• Even (Lamut) of eastern Siberia

Following languages can be considered dialects or related languages of Evenki

• Oroqen
• Negidal
• Solon
• Manegir

Southern Tungusic

• Southeast Tungusic
  • Nanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen)
  • Akani
  • Birar
  • Kile
  • Samagir
  • Orok
  • Ulch
  • Oroch
  • Udege

• Southwest Tungusic (or the Jurchen-Manchu group)
  • Manchu of Manchuria, the language of the Manchus, who founded the Qing Dynasty of China.
  • Sibe - spoken in Xinjiang autonomous region by descendants of a Manchurian tribe dispatched by the Qing Dynasty to Xinjiang as a military garrison.
  • Jurchen - an extinct language of the Jin Dynasty of China.

 

 

Hulunbuir

Hulunbuir (呼伦贝尔) is a region that is governed as a prefecture-level city in northeastern Inner Mongolia, in the People's Republic of China. Its administrative center is located at Hailar district, its largest urban area.

The jurisdiction area of the city is actually larger than many Chinese provinces (and 42 U.S. states), and Hulun Buir is recognized as the largest city in the world by area, although the actual urban agglomeration is just a very small part of the region, and the average population density of the area is very low.

Hulun Buir borders Russia, Mongolia, Heilongjiang province and Hinggan League. Historically, the eastern part of the area is also known as Barga.

 

 

* Old Siberia: Basic Genetic Contributions in the European and Siberian Taiga by DNA Tribes

 

* Genetic Polymorphisms at HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 Loci in Han Population of Xi’an City in China by Chunmei Shen, et al.

Dendrogram Constructed by the Neighbor-joining Method Showing the Relationship Between Han Population with Other 15 Populations Based on the Allele Arequencies of HLA-DRB1 Locus

(Han Fujian, Mongolian Inner Mongolia, Ewenki)

 

 

Manchuria

Extent of Manchuria according to Definition 1 (dark red), Definition 3 (dark red + medium red) and Definition 4 (dark red + medium red + light red)

Manchuria ( ; 滿洲; Russian: Маньчжурия, Mongolian: Манж) is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria either falls entirely within China, or is divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast China (東北), and historically referred as Guandong (關東), which literally means "pass east."

This region is the traditional homeland of the Xianbei, Khitan, and Jurchen people, who built several dynasties in northern China. The region is also the home of the Manchus, after whom Manchuria is named. Beginning in the 17th century, the Manchus ruled China until the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911.

"Manchuria" can refer to any one of several regions of various size. These are, from smallest to largest:

1. Northeast China: generally defined as the three provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning.
2. The above, plus part of northeastern Inner Mongolia.
3. The above, plus the Jehol region of Hebei province. The part of Manchuria in China is called Inner Manchuria to contrast it with Outer Manchuria (see below).
4. The above, plus Outer Manchuria or Russian Manchuria, a region in Russia that stretches from the Amur and Ussuri rivers to the Stanovoy Mountains and the Sea of Japan. Russian Far East comprises Primorsky Krai, southern Khabarovsk Krai, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast and Amur Oblast. These were part of Manchu China according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, but were ceded to Russia by the Treaty of Aigun (1858).
5. The above, plus Sakhalin Oblast, which is generally included on Chinese maps as part of Outer Manchuria, even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.

 

Manchuria - Cradle of Conflict by Owen Lattimore

 

 

 

 

The Archaeology of Northeast China: Beyond the Great Wall by Sarah Nelson

 

 

 

 

Harbin and Manchuria: Place, Space, and Identity (South Atlantic Quarterly) by Thomas Lahusen (Editor)

 

 

 

 

Manchu People in Taiwan

The Manchu people in Taiwan constitute a small minority of the population of Taiwan. The Manchu people living in Taiwan arrived primarily in two waves of migration. The first wave was during the Qing Dynasty period. During this period, the Manchurian government annexed Taiwan into the Qing Empire. The second wave was immediately following the Chinese Civil War, when the Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan. Currently, there are about 12,000 Manchu people living in Taiwan.

 

Taiwan Under Qing Rule

Manchu writing at the Taiwan Confucian Temple. Inscription on the Dismounting stele reads: "Civil and military officials, soldiers and citizens, all dismount from their horses here"

The Chinese Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan from 1683 to 1895. In 1683, an army led by Shi Lang, a Qing general, occupied Taiwan. This was the first time in history that China ruled Taiwan.

The early Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan passively, because the Qing Emperor Kangxi and lots of other government officials believed that Taiwan was small and uncivilized, and called the island as Huawaizhidi (化外之地). Shi Lang, however, believed in the island's importance, worked to make Taiwan part of China. Taiwan was governed as part of Fujian province at the time, only becoming a separate province later.

There were more than a hundred rebellions during the Qing Dynasty reign. The frequency of rebellions, riots, and civil strife in Qing Dynasty Taiwan is evoked by the common saying "every three years an uprising; every five years a rebellion" (三年一反、五年一亂).

Near the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu court began to feel the acute pressure of foreign expansionism, such as Japanese ambitions upon Manchuria and Taiwan and Russian ambitions upon the entire northern frontier. As a result, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was made into a separate province in 1885; however it was ceded to Japan in 1895. Xinjiang was made into a province in 1884. Manchuria was made into the three provinces of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside the province system of China Proper when the Qing Dynasty fell in 1912.

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Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

 

Mongol

The name "Mongol" appeared first in 8th century records of the Chinese Tang dynasty, but then only resurfaced in the 11th century during the rule of the Khitan. At first it was applied to some small and still insignificant tribes in the area of the Onon River. In the 13th century, it grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan under a same identity (mostly cultural).

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Some researchers have proposed a link to languages like Tungusic and Turkic, which are often included alongside Mongolic in a hypothetical group called Altaic languages, but evidence for this line of argumentation is rather weak

Today, people of Mongol origin live in Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia), Russia, and a few other central Asian countries.

The differentiation between tribes and peoples (nationalities) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Bargut (or Barga), Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayid, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Zakhchin (Zakchin), Darkhad, and Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols.

Other geographically dispersed Mongol peoples include the Moghol, Hazara, and Aimak in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran. There are approximately 5.8 million ethnic Mongols living in China. Most of them live in Inner Mongolia, Northeast China, Xinjiang, etc. The Mongol population in China is over twice that of the independent nation of Mongolia.

Mongolia has been inhabited for over 800,000 years. Important prehistoric sites are the paleolithic cave drawings of the Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui (Northern Cave of Blue) in Khovd Province, and the Tsagaan Agui (White Cave) in Bayankhongor Province. A neolithic farming settlement has been found in Dornod Province. Contemporary findings from western Mongolia include only temporary encampments of hunters and fishers. The population during the Copper Age has been described as paleomongolid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europid in the west.

The History of the Mongol Conquests by J. J. Saunders

 

 

 

 

The Mongols by David Morgan

 

 

 

 

 

Great Wall of China (in red)

The Great Wall of China (萬里長城; literally "The long wall of 10,000 Li (里)") is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire from Xiongnu attacks during the rule of successive dynasties. Several walls, referred to as the Great Wall of China, were built since the 5th century BC. The most famous is the wall built between 220–200 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang; little of it remains; it was much farther north than the current wall, which was built during the Ming Dynasty.

The Great Wall stretches over approximately 6,400 km (4,000 miles) from Shanhaiguan in the east to Lop Nur in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia, but stretches to over 6,700 km (4,160 miles) in total. At its peak, the Ming Wall was guarded by more than one million men. It has been estimated that somewhere in the range of 2 to 3 million Chinese died as part of the centuries-long project of building the wall.

The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China 221 B.C. to AD 1757 by Thomas J. Barfield

 

 

 

Ancient China and Its Enemies: The rise of nomadic power in East Asian history by Nicola Di Cosmo

 

 

 

 

 

1279 Mongol Invasions of Southern China (Battle of Yamen)

The Naval Battle of Yamen (崖門戰役) (also known as the Naval Battle of Mount Ya; 崖山海戰) took place on 19 March 1279 and is considered to be the last stand of the Song Dynasty against the Yuan Dynasty, which was established by the Mongols in 1271. Although outnumbered 20:1, the Yuan navy delivered a crushing tactical and strategic victory, annihilating the Song. Today, the battle site is located at Yamen, in Xinhui County, Guangdong Province, China. It was one of the largest naval battles in history.

Background: In 1276, the Southern Song court fled the capital Lin'an from the Mongol invaders to Fuzhou (福州), leaving Emperor Gong behind to be captured. Hopes of resistance centered on two young princes, Emperor Gong's brothers. The older boy, Zhao Shi, who was nine years old, was declared emperor.

In 1277, when Fuzhou fell to the Mongols, the exiled dynasty fled to Quanzhou (泉州), where Zhang Shijie, the Grand General of Song, hoped to borrow boats to continue their flight. However, the Muslim merchant Fu Shougeng denied them, prompting Zhang to confiscate Fu's properties and flee on stolen boats with the Song court. In fury, Fu slaughtered the imperial clan and various officials in Quanzhou and surrendered to the Yuan, strengthening the Mongols' naval power.

The Song court sailed to Guangdong from Quanzhou. However, Zhao Shi's boat capsized in a storm while on the way to Leizhou. While he survived, he fell ill because of this ordeal. The imperial court later sought refuge in Lantau Island's Mui Wo, where Emperor Zhao Shi eventually died; he was succeeded by his younger sibling, Zhao Bing, who was seven. Zhang Shijie brought the new emperor to Yamen and prepared the defense against Yuan there.

In 1278, Wen Tianxiang, who had fought against the Yuan in Guangdong and Jiangxi, was captured by Wang Weiyi in Haifeng County, eliminating all the Song land forces nearby.

The Battle: In 1279, Zhang Hongfan of the Yuan attacked the Song navy in Yamen. Li Heng, who previously had captured Guangzhou, reinforced Zhang Hongfan. Some within the Song forces suggested that the navy should first claim the mouth of the bay, so as to secure their line of retreat to the west. Zhang Shijie turned this suggestion down in order to prevent his soldiers from fleeing the battle. He then ordered the burning of all palaces, houses, and forts on land for the same reason.

Zhang ordered about a thousand warships to be chained together, forming a long string within the bay, and placed Emperor Bing's boat in the center of his fleet. The Yuan forces steered fire ships into the Song formation, but the Song ships were prepared for such an attack: all Song ships had been painted with fire-resistant mud. The Yuan navy then blockaded the bay, while the Yuan army cut off Song's fresh water and wood sources on land. The Song soldiers were forced to eat dry foods and drink sea water, causing nausea and vomiting. Zhang Hongfan even kidnapped Zhang Shijie's nephew, asking Zhang Shijie to surrender on three occasions, to no avail.

In the afternoon of March 18, Zhang Hongfan prepared for a massive assault. The employment of cannons was turned down because Hongfan felt that cannons could break the chains of the formation too effectively, making it easy for the Song ships to retreat. The next day, Zhang Hongfan split his naval forces into four parts: one part on each of the Song's east, north, and south sides, while Hongfan led the remaining faction to about a li away from the Song forces.

First, the north flank engaged the Song forces but were repulsed. The Yuan then began playing festive music, leading the Song to think that the Yuan forces were having a banquet and lowering their guard. At noon, Zhang Hongfan attacked from the front, hiding additional soldiers under large pieces of cloth. Once Zhang Hongfan's boats neared the Song fleet, the Yuan sounded the horn of battle, revealing Yuan soldiers under the fabric. Caught off guard, the Song fleet lost seven ships. Seeing that the battle was lost, Zhang Shijie picked out his finest soldiers and cut about a dozen ships from the formation in an attempted breakout to save the emperor.

The Yuan forces advanced to the center and to Emperor Bing. There, Left Prime Minister Lu Xiufu saw no hope of breaking free, and jumped into the sea with the boy emperor, killing them both. Many officials and concubines followed suit.

Aftermath: The History of Song records that, seven days after the battle, hundreds of thousands of corpses floated to the surface of the sea. Reportedly, the body of the boy emperor was found near today's Shekou in Shenzhen, though his actual grave is yet to be found.

Zhang Shijie, having escaped the battle, hoped to have Dowager Yang appoint the next Song emperor, and from there continue to resist the Yuan dynasty. But after hearing of Emperor Bing's death, Dowager Yang also committed suicide at sea. Zhang Shijie buried her at the shore. Zhang Shijie and his remaining soldiers were assumed to be drowned at sea due to the fact there was a tropical storm soon afterwards. Many suggest his death was simply Mongolian propaganda as the remains of his fleet were never found.

As Emperor Bing is the last Song emperor, his recorded death effectively ended the Song Dynasty. The Yuan dynasty, under Kublai Khan, had all of China under its control.

Many temples were built in the surrounding area in memory of the brave souls in the Song's dying years, most notably: Wen Tianxiang, Lu Xiufu, and Zhang Shijie. In the 1980s, another grave was built near Shekou to commemorate the boy emperor.

 

 

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

(Mongolia, Taiwan, Korea)

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Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

 

Map of Tibet and Nepal

 

 

Nepali

Sikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. It is the least populous state in India, and the second-smallest in area after Goa. The thumb-shaped state borders Nepal in the west, Tibet to the north and east, and Bhutan in the southeast. The Indian state of West Bengal borders Sikkim to its south. The official language of the state is English, while there is a sizeable population who converse in Nepali, Lepcha, Bhutia, and Limbu. It is an ancient land also known as 'Indrakil' or garden of Indra, the king-god of heaven, in Hindu religious texts.

Not much is known about Sikkim's ancient history, except for the fact that the first inhabitants were the Lepchas or Rong (ravine folk). They were later encompassed and absorbed by other clans.

In 1700 the Nepalese Gurkha Army invaded Sikkim, and took the former capital Rabdentse by storm.

Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded by his son, Tensung Namgyal in 1670. The reign of the chogyal was peaceful and saw the capital being shifted from Yuksom to Rabdentse. Chadok Namgyal, the king's second wife's son, took over the throne from him in 1700. This outraged his elder half-sister Pendiongmu, who ousted him with the help of the Bhutanese. Chadok fled to Tibet where he remained in exile for ten years before returning and reclaiming his lost territory with the help of the Tibetans. His son Gurmed Namgyal succeeded him in 1717. Gurmed's reign saw many skirmishes between the Nepalese and Sikkimese. Phunstok Namgyal, the illegitimate child of Gurmed, succeeded his father in 1733. His reign was tumultuous as he was faced with attacks by the Bhutanese and the Nepalese who managed to capture the capital Rabdentse. Tenzing Namgyal, the next ruler of Sikkim, was a weak ruler, and his sovereignty saw most of Sikkim being appropriated by Nepal. The chogyal was forced to flee to Lhasa where he died in 1780. Tshudpud Namgyal, his son returned to Sikkim in 1793 to reclaim the throne with the help of China. Finding Rabdentse too close to the Nepalese border, he shifted the capital to Tumlong.

Nepalese: The Nepalese are descendants of three major migrations from India, Tibet, and North Burma and Yunnan via Assam.

Among the earliest inhabitants of Nepal were the Kirat of east mid-region, Newar of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharu in the southern Terai region. The ancestors of the Brahman and Chetri caste groups migrated eastward from India Kumaon, Garwal and Kashmir, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to North Burma and Yunnan and Tibet, e.g. the Gurung and Magar in the west, Rai and Limbu in the east, and Sherpa and Bhotia in the north.

In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% of the land, much of the population is physically and culturally similar to the Indo-Aryans of northern India. Indo-Aryan and East Asian looking mixed people live in the hill region. The mountainous region is sparsely populated above 3,000 meters, but in central and western Nepal ethnic Tibetans inhabit even higher semi-arid valleys north of the high Himalaya. Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 5% of the population. Nepal is a multilingual, multireligious and multiethnic society.

 

 

* Antiquity, Geographic Contiguity and Genetic Affinity Among Tibeto-Burman Populations of India: a microsatellite study by S. Krithika, et al.

Background: The Tibeto-Burman (TB) populations are one of the four major linguistic population groups of India. They are considered belonging to different stocks and show wide variation in culture and language; however, their genetic relationship, antiquity and migration history among the regional populations has been little investigated. Molecular genetic studies are expected to clearly show the antiquity and genetic diversity of these populations. AIM: This paper seeks to understand the extent and magnitude of genetic affinities and diversities among 14 TB populations (12 Indian and two global groups), investigate the findings based on classical genetic markers and verify the historical accounts of their migration and genetic history based on 12 microsatellite markers. Subjects and Methods: The allele frequency data for 12 STR loci of 13 Asian (Tibeto-Burman) populations were obtained from the literature and the Adi Pasi data was obtained by microsatellite typing of their blood samples. The 12 loci studied are D5S818, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D7S820, CSF1PO, D3S1358, THO1, D13S317, vWa, TPOX, D18S51. Three different distance measures, two phylogenetic trees and PCA plot have been employed to understand the genetic relationship of the studied populations. Results: Average heterozygosity values range from 68 to 79% and the average G(ST) value is 4.7%. The dendrogram, based on the D(A) distance, shows the clustering of populations based on their diversities and geographical contiguity; the Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh populations especially cluster together, populations from Sikkim form a separate subcluster and Manipur populations along with the Garo of West Bengal separate out from the other clusters. The Harpending and Ward regression model shows isolated populations positioned below the regression line and others, who experience external gene flow, placed above the line. The results support folklore migration accounts of their possible antiquity with the Tibetan and southern Chinese populations. Conclusions: Overall, geographic contiguity, punctuated by isolating barriers, is a major influencing factor of genetic affinity among the TB population; contiguous populations within a region show greater genetic relationship than with distant TB populations over a wide geographical area. The results of the microsatellite study also support the history of diverse routes of migration of these populations.

 

 

Tibetan

The Tibetan people (藏人) are indigenous to Tibet and surrounding areas stretching from Central Asia in the North and West to Myanmar and China Proper in the East.

The Han Chinese and "proto-Tibeto-Burman" may have split sometime before 4000 BC, when the Han began growing millet in the Yellow River valley while the Tibeto-Burmans remained nomads; Tibet split from Burma circa 500. The Tibetan language is a member of the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.

Very little is known about the origins of the Tibetan people. Some argue that Tibetans share a genetic background with Mongols, although it is clear that other main influences do exist. Some anthropologists have suggested a Indo-Scythian component, and others a Southeast Asian component; both are credible given Tibet's geographic location. Some light has been shed on their origins, however, by one genetic study: Su, Bing, et al. (2000), in which it was indicated that Tibetan Y-chromosomes had multiple origins, one from Central Asia while the other from East Asia.

Lhasa, (拉薩) sometimes spelled Lasa, is the administrative capital of the Tibet. Lhasa is located at the foot of Mount Gephel. Traditionally, the city is the seat of the Dalai Lama and the capital of Tibet. It is the location of the Potala and Norbulingka palaces (both are included in a World Heritage Site), and in Tibetan Buddhism is regarded as the holiest centre in Tibet. Lhasa literally means "place of the gods", although ancient Tibetan documents and inscriptions demonstrate that the place was called Rasa, which means "goat's place", until the early 7th century

 

 

* 非原住民台灣人的基因結構 by 林媽利

從基因的結構上，台灣人分少數的台灣原住民及大多數的非原住民台灣人，台灣原住民在台灣島內經過幾千年長期的隔離，形成相似及一致的基因結構。非原住民的台灣人是由多個族群融合而形成，因此基因結構多樣及互異。我們共分析一百名非原住民台灣人的體染色體組織抗原、母系血緣及父系血緣，試著探討台灣人與周圍族群的關係，也就是與台灣原住民、東南亞島嶼族群（印尼、菲律賓）、中國的福建廣東及亞洲大陸的關係。這一百人中有十九人的近代祖先來自福建廣東，三人的祖父來自其他省份，沒外國祖先。

組織抗原及許多體染色體基因的研究，可從建構族群關係樹測定族群間親緣的遠近關係，可惜這關係樹看不清楚混血的情形。然而我們成功的比對了福建人與台灣人間共有組織抗原半套型的情形，發現台灣人的半套型基因有四十八％是來自福建，其他五十二％主要來自原住民、東南亞島嶼族群及少數的可能來自歐洲、日本、東北亞、印度及西藏。

 

* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

Abstract: This study is focused on Central area of Taiwan and based on three important Iron Age plains and coastal archaeological sites-Fan-Zai-Uan, Lu-Liao and Hui-Lai, dating between 2000 and 400 B.P. This period is so called “Iron Age”. Mitochondrial DNA extracted from human remains of these three sites will tell us the genetic relation between the Iron Age people and modern aboriginal populations of Taiwan. Combing other pertinent researches of this subject, we can delineate the possible migration route of Iron Age people. The results of ancient DNAs（aDNAs）indicate that Iron Age people in Central Taiwan have genetic affinities with some modern aboriginal populations. The haplogroups of aDNAs show that their maternal origin might be the mainland of Asia.

Based on haplotyes shared with modern aboriginal populations, Fan-Zai-Yuan sample is closely related to Atayal ethnic group. Atayal came from mountain area of central Taiwan. The haplotype of Fan-Zai-Yuan sample possibly has a connection with Da-Ma-Lin archaeological site, which is located in the central mountain area and affected by cultures from plains. Lu-Liao sample is close to Bunun ethnic group. Lu-Liao site is where Papora used to live. A linguistic study suggests that Papora might come from the Zhuo-Shui river, which is a possible homeland of Luan community of Bunun. The Hui-Lai sample (M9a) shares no haplotyes with any modern aboriginal populations. The haplogourp is also hardly found in modern Austronesian, possibly because lots of populations lived here and had a large gene pool.

Recent genetic researches show that modern aboriginal populations are heterogenous because of geographic reasons. However, people who live in plains interacted frequently and belonged to the same culture system for a long time. Based on the results of aDNAs analysis, the Iron Age people arrived lowland central Taiwan as early as part of modern indigenous people who live in mountain area today. Moreover, people who live in plains were more likely to be affected by other cultures. Genetically speaking, their population structures tend to be more diverse.

 

 

 

 

M9 - 藏族(Tibetan)是主要居住在中國境內的操藏語的民族，主要聚居在青藏高原，四川、甘肅、雲南等省也有分布，中國境內人口約541萬餘人（2000年）。另外，尼泊爾、巴基斯坦、印度克什米爾、不丹等國境內也有藏族分布。 藏族自稱「蕃巴」（bod-pa）。

原始漢人與原始藏緬人約在公元前4000年左右分開。原始漢人逐漸移居到黃河流域從事農業，而原始藏緬人則向西南遷徙並從事游牧業。而之後藏族與緬甸人又進一步的分離。原始藏緬人屬於古羌人系統，發羌入藏為吐蕃王朝發跡的一種歷史學觀點。

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Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

 

Japanese

The Japanese people are the dominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries are referred to as nikkeijin (日系人). The term "Japanese people" may also be used in some contexts to refer to a locus of ethnic groups including the Yamato people, Ainu people, and Ryukyuans.

A recent study by Michael F. Hammer has shown genetic similarity to a variety of populations in Asia. This and other genetic studies have also claimed that Y-chromosome patrilines crossed from Asian mainland into the Japanese Archipelago, where they currently comprise a significant fraction of the extant male lineages of the Japanese population. These patrilines seem to have experienced extensive genetic admixture with the long-established Jōmon period populations of Japan.

A recent study for the origins of Japanese people is based on the "dual structure model" proposed by Hanihara in 1991. He concludes that modern Japanese lineages consist of the original Jōmon people and immigrants from the Yayoi period. The Jōmon people originated in southeast Asia, moving to the Japanese Archipelago in the Palaeolithic period. In past several decades, the Japanese people was proposed to relate to Yi, Hani and Dai people based on folk customs or genetic evidences.

Another southeast Asian group moved to northeastern Asia. The population of this group increased in the Neolithic period and some moved to the archipelago during the Yayoi period. The miscegenation prevailed in Kyūshū, Shikoku and Honshū islands but not in Okinawa and Hokkaido, respectively represented by the Ryukyuan and Ainu people. This theory was based on the study of the development of human bones and teeth. The comparison of mitochondrial DNA between Jōmon people and medieval Ainu also supports the theory.

Masatoshi Nei opposed the "dual structure model" and alleged that the genetic distance data shows the origin of Japanese was in northeast Asia, moving to Japan perhaps more than thirty thousand years ago.

 

 

* Formosa Betrayed by George H. Kerr

Excerpt: A seesaw conflict between this island world and the continent has been in evidence for at least two thousand years. The earliest Chinese notices of Formosa indicate that it was sparsely settled by fierce non-Chinese barbarians long before the Chinese themselves pushed southward from their homeland in the Yellow River basin to settle along the Fukien coast. These savages of a southern origin crossed the channel from time to time to plunder coastal villages or to seek a barter trade. The Chinese in turn sent out expeditions to punish them or to explore the distant island shores. In time a small settlement of Chinese fishermen appeared in the Pescadores but there were no significant attempts to displace the Formosan aborigines or to found permanent Chinese settlements on Formosa until the way had been prepared by others.

Japanese merchants and pirates appear to have been the first to establish small immigrant villages. For centuries they were sailing past Formosa to the China ports, to Southeast Asia and the Indies. In times of storm or when in need of supply or ship's repair they took shelter in the lagoons and inlets along Formosa's western shore. At last a considerable Japanese settlement (which they named Takasago) came into being at a point not far distant from present-day Tainan.

Then came the Spanish and the Dutch. When Japan's great dictator Hideyoshi menaced Luzon, late in the 1500's, Spain's Viceroy at Manila proposed to occupy Formosa. In 1626 Spanish forts and missions were established at Keelung and Tamsui on the island's northern tip. Meanwhile the Dutch had reached the Pescadores, seeking a naval base from which to harass Portuguese trade at Macao and to interfere with the Spanish shipping near the Philippines. In 1623 they abandoned Makung and moved to Formosa proper, founding Anping and the present-day city of Tainan. They sometimes quarreled with the Japanese nearby, but Takasago village faded rapidly after the home government adopted its Seclusion policies forbidding Japanese to travel overseas. In 1642 the Dutch Protestants drove the Spanish Catholics from their narrow foothold at the north, and for twenty years thereafter held the island without serious challenge.

This might well be called Formosa's "European half-century," for the colony prospered as the Dutch created Formosa's first government, established schools and missions for the aborigines, opened up the countryside for agriculture and sent missionaries far back into the mountains. Thus in the second quarter of the 17th century European arms and administration opened the way for Chinese immigration. At that time Ming China was torn by civil rebellion and pressed hard by enemies from beyond the Great Wall. Everywhere local warlords and imperial agents extorted unreasonable taxes and tribute from the common people in an effort to support a tottering central government. Ignoring strict official edicts banning emigration, villagers, farmers and fishermen began to leave the country. The government considered them traitors, renegades and outlaws. Thousands went overseas to Java and Malaya, Borneo, Siam and the Philippines. Tens of thousands made their way across the water barrier to Formosa, so conveniently near - too near, as they were soon to learn.

These "outlaws" were the ancestors of the majority of people living on Formosa today. They were hardy pioneers, bold and adventurous. Those who sought new land beyond the limits of Dutch administration were on a true frontier; their contemporaries in faraway America provide a close parallel if one is needed to illustrate the situation. Going into their new fields they had to carry weapons as well as farm-tools, and they dwelt within stockades. The aborigines contested every advance into the hills, and the Chinese newcomers, on their part, considered the savages to be subhuman, or "non-people" who should be driven back into the highest mountains if they could not be exterminated in the foothills ....

 

 

Taiwan Under Japanese Rule

1912 Map of Japan including Taiwan

The Japanese colonial period, Japanese rule or the Imperial Japanese occupation, in the context of Taiwan's history, refers to the period between 1895 and 1945 during which Taiwan was a Japanese colony. The expansion into Taiwan was a part of Japan's general policy of southward expansion during the late 19th Century.

It has been argued that Japanese rule in Taiwan was markedly different from in Korea and other parts of Asia. As Taiwan was Japan's first overseas colony, Japanese intentions were to turn the island into a showpiece "model colony". As a result, much effort was made to improve the island's economy, industry, public works and culture. However, Japanese rule of Taiwan also had a negative side, such as the prostitution of Taiwanese women as comfort women.

The relative failures of immediate post-World War II rule by the Kuomintang led to a certain degree of nostalgia amongst the older generation of Taiwanese who experienced both. This has affected, to some degree, issues such as national identity, ethnic identity and the Taiwan independence movement. The comparative lack of anti-Japanese sentiment amongst Taiwanese society is often not understood by overseas Chinese communities and mainland Chinese.

Imperial Japan had sought to control Taiwan since 1592, when Toyotomi Hideyoshi began extending Japanese influence overseas. In 1609, the Tokugawa Shogunate sent Haruno Arima on an exploratory mission. In 1616, Murayama Toan led an unsuccessful invasion of the island. In 1871, an Okinawan vessel shipwrecked on the southern tip of Taiwan and the crew of fifty-four were beheaded by the Paiwan aborigines. When Japan sought compensation from Qing China, the court rejected the demand on the grounds that the "wild"/"unsubjugated" aboriginals (台灣生番) were outside its jurisdiction. This open renunciation of sovereignty led to a Japanese invasion of Taiwan. In 1874, an expeditionary force of three thousand troops was sent to the island. There were about thirty Taiwanese and 543 Japanese casualties (twelve in battle and 531 by endemic diseases).

Qing China was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), and ceded Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan in perpetuity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Inhabitants wishing to remain Chinese subjects were given a two-year grace period to sell their property and remove to mainland China. Very few Taiwanese saw this as plausible. On May 25, 1895, a group of pro-Qing high officials proclaimed the Republic of Formosa to resist impending Japanese rule. Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance on October 21, 1895.

The Japanese were instrumental in the industrialization of the island; they extended the railroads and other transportation networks, built an extensive sanitation system and revised the public school system. Still, the ethnic Chinese and Taiwanese aborigines were classified as second- and third-class citizens. Large-scale violence continued in the first decade of rule. Around 1935, the Japanese began an island-wide assimilation project to bind the island more firmly to the Japanese Empire. By 1945, just before Japan lost World War II, desperate plans were put in place to incorporate popular representation of Taiwan into the Japanese Diet to make Taiwan an integral part of Japan proper. Japan's rule of Taiwan ended when it lost World War II and signed the Instrument of Surrender on August 15, 1945.

 

 

* The Biological Evidence of the San-pau-chi People and Their Affinities by Hsiu-Man Lin

Excerpts: For the study of ancient DNA, only six individuals (G17 II B1 – 138 bps, H15 II B8 – 133 bps, H16 II B6 – 178 bps, H16 II B8 – 176 bps, H17 II B3 – 211 bps, and J17 II B4 – 154 bps) were used for distance analysis because of the longer length of the preserved portions of their HV1 sequences and it reveals a close relationship between the SPC sample and Japanese. However, this result should be taken with extreme cautions given the tiny sample size and sequence length, and the fact the ancient DNA results for SPC could not be independently confirmed. None (0 of n=12) of the SPC sample has the 9-bp deletion, a typical haplogroup for Polynesians. Although most of the positive PCR re-amplifications show negative reactions for restriction analyses of A, B, ,C, D, F, H, and M, six individuals were assigned to A (n=2), C (n=2), H (n=1), and M (n=1). Additionally, the rate of successful DNA extraction using teeth was much higher than that by using bones, although they are mostly fragments in terms of successful amplification of the entire HV1 sequence.

In conclusion, the dental evidence in this project seems to suggest a Northern Asian affinity for the SPC people, which is unexpected and varies from previously proposed models of Austronesian dispersals. The ancient DNA evidence is, unfortunately, too poor to clearly support or refute the result from dental analysis. The dental results differ from any of original hypotheses of this project for the role of Taiwan in Austronesian migrations. Interestingly, however, the dental results accord with result from the Hui-Lei-Lee site that the M9a haplotype recovered from the site is most likely of Northern Asian origin (Yan 2006). This does not exclude the possibility that the SPC people are related to Austronesian speakers in the South Pacific. It is evident that there may have been some level of gene flow between the SPC people, mainland Asian, and Oceania according to the sizes of maxillary crown width (which explains the similarity to Tonga) and perhaps the presence of mitochondrial haplogroups A and M (ancestral Asian haplogroups)....

Because the dental morphological study and ancient DNA analyses seem to suggest a Northern Asian affinity for the SPC people, it is proposed here that approximately 2,500 BP, some prehistoric Taiwanese came from Northern Asia. However, the WCTS people, contemporaries of SPC, show a closer relatedness with the Namu from the Hawai’i. Therefore, a simple model of “Out of Taiwan” or “Indigenous Melanesian Origin” cannot explain the whole picture of prehistoric Taiwan. In this circumstance, it seems to indicate that Taiwan in the past may have harbored diverse populations....

 

The Biological Evidence of the San-Pau-Chu People: Prehistoric Man of Taiwan by Hsiu-Man Lin

 

 

 

 

 

 

Altaic People

Altaic peoples are the peoples who speak Altaic languages (note that the existence of the Altaic language family as a genetically related group is controversial).

The term Turco-Mongol refers to Turkic and Mongolic peoples or tribes in combination, in particular in the context of the migration period Huns, which were comprised of unions of multiple ethnicities of Altaic clans, and the medieval Mongol Empire ("Turco-Mongol Empire").

There has been debate on a possible relationship with Uralic peoples, i.e. peoples speaking a Uralic language. Uralic peoples are divided into two groups: Finno-Ugric peoples (including Hungarians, Finns, and Estonians) and Samoyedic peoples (including Nenets).

 

 

Altaic and Macro-Altaic (from Stratification in the Peopling of China: How Far does the Linguistic Evidence Match Genetics and Archaeology? by Roger Blench and Mallam Dendo)

 

 

 

* Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Populations by Hiroki Oota, et al.

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Finns - Kirghiz Lowlander - British - Kazakh - Turks - Basques - Sardinian

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Finns - Indian - Ainu - Aboriginal Australian - Anatolia Turks - Borneo

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Korean - Philippines - Uighurs - Changsha - Taiwanese (aborigines) - Vietnamese - Vanuata - Indonesian - PNG

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Xi'an (Shaanxi) - Tottori (Japanese) - Kirghiz Highlander - Mongolian - Ngoebe - Altai of Siberia - Amerind - Argentina - Siberians

 

 

Altai, Siberia

The Altai Mountains are known as the original locus of the speakers of Turkic as well as other members of the proposed Altaic language group.

Altaic is a proposed language family that is held by its proponents to include the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, and possibly the Japonic language families and the Korean language isolate (Georg et al. 1999:73–74). These languages are spoken in a wide arc stretching from northeast Asia through Central Asia to Anatolia and eastern Europe (Turks, Kalmyks).

The Altai Mountains in what is now southern Russia and central China have been identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon. It is conjectured that climatic problems in this region around the start of the second millennium BC created ecological, economic and political changes which triggered a rapid and massive migration of peoples westward into northeast Europe and eastward into southeast China, Vietnam and Thailand across a frontier of some 4,000 miles. This migration took place in just five to six generations and led to peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing the same metal working technology and, in some areas, horse breeding and riding. It is further conjectured that this phenomenon may have been the medium through which the Uralic group of languages spread across Europe and Asia, ultimately producing 39 modern languages including Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian and Lappish.

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Native Population Match: Salar (Xunhua, Qinhai), Han (Shaanxi), Evenk (Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia), Henan, Han (Jiangsu), Evenk (Harbin, Heilongjiang), Lhasa (Tibet), Hui (Ningxia), Japan, Han (Jilin), Nepali (Sikkim, India), China, Eastern China, Beijing, Tibetan, Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Hanzhong, Shaanxi), Japan, China, Han (Henan).

 

Han Chinese

Map showing the province of Henan and two definitions of the Central Plain or Zhongyuan (map by Exult)

In the narrow, original sense, Huaxia refers to a group (or confederation of tribes) of ancient people living along the Yellow River who formed the nucleus of what later became the Han ethnic group in China. In this sense, the term did not originally represent China or Chinese civilisation as a whole, but referred instead to a specific ethno-cultural group (the Huaxia tribe or confederacy 華夏族) that was distinct from other Chinese peoples at the time, such as the Miao and the Dongyi. Subsequently, with the spread of Han culture over most of China, the term came to be used as a generic term for the Chinese nation itself, as well as for Chinese culture in general.

The Central Plain of China (中原; Zhongyuan) refers to the area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. It forms part of the North China Plain.

In its narrowest sense, the Central Plain covers modern-day Henan, the southern part of Hebei, the southern part of Shanxi, and the western part of Shandong province. A broader interpretation of the Central Plain's extent would add the Guanzhong plain of Shaanxi, the northwestern part of Jiangsu, and parts of Anhui and northern Hebei.

Inscriptions on some bronze objects from this era contain references to the 'Central States' (Zhongguo; (中國), 'Eastern States', or 'Southern States'. This indicates that the Central Plain, which was referred as the 'Central States' in these inscriptions, was considered to occupy the center of the world. 

 

 

Shaanxi

Shaanxi (陝西) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River as well as the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of the province.

Desert in the north along the border with Inner Mongolia, the Loess Plateau in the central part of the province, the Qinling mountains running east to west in the south central part, and subtropical climate south of the Qinling mountains.

Shaanxi is considered one of the cradles of Chinese civilization. Thirteen feudal dynasties established their capitals in the province during a span of more than 1,100 years, from the Zhou Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty.

The province's principal city and current capital, Xi'an, is one of the four great ancient capitals of China and is the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, which leads to Europe, Arabia and Africa.

Under the Han Dynasty, the Northern Silk Road was expanded to advance exploration and military purposes to the west. This Northern Silk Road is the northernmost of the Silk Roads and is about 2600 kilometres in length. It connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei and emerging in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia.

Demographics: Nearly all the people in Shaanxi are ethnic Han Chinese, with pockets of Hui population in the north western region (adjacent to Ningxia). The southern part of Shaanxi, known as Guanzhong, where the provincial capital Xi'an is located, is more populated compared to the northern part.

 

Hanzhong (漢中)

 

* Allelic Diversity and Haplotype Structure of HLA Loci in the Chinese Han Population Living in the Guanzhong Region of the Shaanxi Province by Chun-mei Shen, et al.

Abstract: The allele and haplotype frequencies of HLA-A, -B and -DRB1 loci in 10,000 healthy unrelated Han individuals living in the Guanzhong region of the Shaanxi Province were analyzed with the methods of SSO, SSP and SBT. Subsequently, these data were compared with results obtained in Han populations living in other regions as well as to other ethnic groups, using genetic distance measurements, neighbor-joining dendrograms and principal component analysis. In total 18 alleles were detected at the HLA-A locus, 46 alleles at the HLA-B locus and 14 alleles at the HLA-DRB1 locus. HLA-A*02 was the most common HLA-A allele (29.70%), followed by A*11 (18.70%), and A*24 (15.75%); whereas at the HLA-B locus, the allele with the highest frequency was HLA-B*13 (10.76 %), followed by B*46 (7.93%), B*51 (7.68%). At the HLA-DRB1 locus, the most common alleles were HLA-DRB1*15 (15.54%), DRB1*09 (13.18%) and DRB1*04 (11.21%). Three-loci haplotype analysis revealed that HLA A*30- B*13- DRB1*07 (4.11%), A*02 -B*46 -DRB1*09 (2.57%) and A*33 -B*58 -DRB1*17 (1.32%) were the most common haplotypes in this population. Four two-loci haplotypes, including HLA-A*30-B*43, A*30-B*53, B*43-DRB1*07 and B*73-DRB1*04 had significant linkage disequilibrium (relative linkage disequilibrium parameter equals to 1). Compared with other populations, our results indicated that the Han populations in different regions had a similar allelic diversity of HLA -A, -B, and -DRB1 loci. The Han population in the Guanzhong region of the Shaanxi Province had a close genetic relationship with the Northern and Southern Han populations. In summary, the similarities and differences of the HLA allelic diversity and haplotype structure between the Han population in the Guanzhong region and related populations, regarding HLA genotype distribution, provide basic information for further studies of the HLA heterogeneity and anthropological studies.

 

* Polymorphism of 17 Y-STR Loci in Shanxi Han Population and Genetic Relationship with 13 Populations by MS Shi, et al.

Abstract: To investigate the genetic polymorphisms of 17 Y-chromosomal short tandem repeats (Y-STR) loci in Shanxi Han population and to explore their forensic application values and genetic relationship with neighboring populations, 17 Y-STR in 222 unrelated healthy Shanxi Han individuals were amplified with Y-filerTM System, and the PCR products were detected with 3130 Genetic Aanalyzer. The allele frequencies and haplotype diversity were calculated. Y-STR data of another 13 populations were collected from publications. Cluster analysis and phylogenic trees were applied to show the genetic distance among the populations. As a result, a total of 219 haplotypes were identified, and the observed haplotypes diversity value was 0.9999. The gene diversity values (GD) for each locus ranged from 0.3894 (DYS391) to 0.9755 (DYS385a/b). Comparing with 13 populations, the genetic distance between Shanxi and Jihei Han populations was the smallest (0.0001), while the genetic distance between Shanxi and Taiwan population was the largest (0.0152). The phylogenetic tree was similar to the results of clustering analysis. Multiplex detection of the 17 Y-STR loci revealed a highly polymorphic genetic distribution, which would be very powerful for establishing a Y-STR database, for population genetics and forensic practice.

14 个群体NJ 系统发生树

 

14 个群体聚类分析图

 

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of 10 Han Subpopulations and 14 Ethnic Minorities

(Han. ShX, Hui)

Han subpopulations: GS, Gansu; HLJ, Heilongjiang; JL, Jilin; NM, Inner Mongolia; ShX, Shaanxi; GD, Guangdong; GX, Guangxi; GZ Guizhou; H ~ N , Hunan; SC, Sichuan.

 

 

Beijing

Beijing (北京; also formerly known in English as Peking) is a metropolis in northern China and the capital of the People's Republic of China. Geographically, Beijing is located at the northern tip of the North China Plain, near the meeting point of the Xishan and Yanshan mountain ranges.

Historically, Beijing was situated on the border between sedentary agricultural areas to the south and nomadic, pastoralist regions beyond the mountains to the north. The Great Wall of China was built across the mountains north of Beijing to guard against nomadic invasions.

Paleolithic homo sapiens lived there about 27,000 years ago. There were cities in the vicinities of Beijing by the 1st millennium BC, and the capital of the State of Yan (燕國), one of the powers of the Warring States Period (473-221 BC), Ji (薊), was established in present-day Beijing. After the fall of the Yan, the subsequent Qin, Han, and Jin dynasties set-up local prefectures in the area. In Tang Dynasty it became the headquarter for Fanyang jiedushi, the virtual military governor of current northern Hebei area. An Lushan launched An Shi Rebellion from here in 755 AD.

In 936, the Later Jin Dynasty (936-947) of northern China ceded a large part of its northern frontier, including modern Beijing, to the Khitan Liao Dynasty. In 938, the Liao Dynasty set up a secondary capital in what is now Beijing, and called it Nanjing (the "Southern Capital"). In 1125, the Jurchen Jin Dynasty conquered Liao, and in 1153 moved its capital to Liao's Nanjing, calling it Zhongdu (中都), "the central capital." Zhongdu was situated in what is now the area centered around Tianningsi, slightly to the southwest of central Beijing. Some of the oldest existing relics in Beijing including the Niujie Mosque and the Tianning Temple date to the Liao era. Paper money was first issued in Beijing during the Jin.

Mongol forces burned Zhongdu to the ground in 1215 and rebuilt it to the north of the Jin capital in 1267. In preparation for the conquest of all of China, Yuan Dynasty founder Kublai Khan made this his capital as Khanbaliq (Mongolian for "great residence of the Khan") or Dadu (大都, Chinese for "grand capital"). This site is known as Cambuluc in Marco Polo's accounts. Apparently, Kublai Khan, who wanted to become a Chinese emperor, established his capital at this location instead of more traditional sites in central China because it was closer to his power base in Mongolia. The decision of the Khan greatly enhanced the status of a city that had been situated on the northern fringe of China proper and it was the true beginning of contemporary Beijing.

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty and future Hongwu Emperor, made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital. The last Yuan emperor fled north to Shangdu and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming Dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces of Khanbaliq to the ground. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the city was later rebuilt by the Ming Dynasty and Shuntian (順天) prefecture was established in the area around the city. In 1403, the third Ming Emperor Yongle moved the Ming capital south to Nanjing (Nanking) from the renamed Beiping (北平), or "northern peace". Yongle moved the Ming capital back north to Beiping in 1421 as a measure to guard the empire against the Mongols and control the northern armies; he also renamed Beiping to Beijing (北京), or "northern capital". Jesuits finished building the first Beijing-area Roman Catholic church in 1652 at the Xuanwu Gate, where Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci lived.

In 1644, Li Zicheng led a major peasant uprising against the Ming Dynasty. He besieged and briefly captured the city of Beijing. The Manchu from the north took advantage of this rebellion, breeching the nearby Great Wall, and capturing the city from rebel control. The Manchus proclaimed the founding of the Qing Dynasty, and they would conquer the rest of China over the next few years. Beijing would remain their imperial capital for nearly three centuries.

 

* HLA-B*15 Subtypes Distribution in Han Population in Beijing, China, as Compared with Those of Other Populations by G. Yang, et al.

Abstract: Summary To identify HLA-B*15 subtypes distribution in Han population in Beijing, People's Republic of China, 826 unrelated healthy individuals were typed using the polymerase chain reaction-sequence-based typing method. Within the 246 HLA-B*15 positive individuals, 29 HLA-B*15 alleles were identified, the most predominant of which is B*1501 (40.07%), followed by B*1502 (12.87%), B*1511 (12.87%), B*1518 (9.19%) and B*1532 (3.31%). The distribution of HLA-B*15 subtype frequencies was compared between the Beijing Han, eight other Chinese ethnic minorities and six Chinese populations covering the mainland of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore. A neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree was constructed and revealed that the Beijing Han population clustered into the northern populations group and had a closer relationship with northern Han and Hui than with southern Han or other ethnic minorities. These results thus provide useful information that can be used in anthropology, selection for bone marrow transplantation as well as in disease-association study, such as in carbamazepine (CBZ)-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis.

 

 

Jilin

Jilin (吉林), is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west. The name was transliterated to Kirin before standardization to pinyin.

The name "Jilin" probably originates from Girin ula, a Manchu term meaning "along the river"; this was transcribed into Jilin wula (吉林烏拉) in Chinese, then shortened to Jilin. The literal meaning of the Chinese characters for "Jilin" is "auspicious forest".

In ancient times Jilin was inhabited by various peoples, notably the Mohe and the Wùjí (勿吉). It also formed a part of the Goguryeo kingdom. The kingdom of Balhae was established in the area from 698 to 926 AD. The region then fell successively under the domination of the Khitan Liao Dynasty, the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, and the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, much of the area was under the control of the General of Jilin, whose area of control extended to the Sea of Japan to encompass much of what is Russia's Primorsky Krai today. Immigration of Han Chinese was strictly controlled.

However, after the Primorsky Krai area was ceded to Russia in 1860, the Qing government began to open the area up to Han Chinese migrants, most of whom came from Shandong. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Han Chinese had become the dominant ethnic group of the region. In 1932, the area was incorporated into Manchukuo, a puppet state set up by Japan, and Changchun (then called Hsinking), capital of Jilin today, was made the capital of Manchukuo. After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the region, together with the rest of northeastern China, was handed to the communists by the Soviet Union.

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Jomon Skeletons from the Funadomari Site, Hokkaido, and Its Implication for the Origins of Native American by Noburu Adachi et al.

Phylogenetic Relationship Between 16 Ancient and Modern East Asian and Siberian Populations Determined by Neighbor-joining Using the Fst Values Based on Haplogroup Frequencies

(Korea, Okinawa, Mainland Japanese, Northeastern Chinese)

 

Northeast China

Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang

Northeast China has a total population of about 107,400,000 people, accounting for 8% of China’s total population. The majority of the population in the Northeast is now Han Chinese, whose ancestors came only recently in the 19th and 20th centuries in a population movement called "Chuang Guandong" (literally: To escape the hardship by going beyond the pass) or (Rush to Northeast China).

Manchus form a significant minority, and have been almost completely assimilated into the Han Chinese; the Manchu language is almost extinct, and many Han Chinese in Northeast China, as well as the rest of China, can claim some Manchu ancestry. Other major ethnic groups include the Mongols, Koreans, and the Huis.

Chuang Guandong (闖關東, literally "Crashing into the east (of the fortress)" The "fortress" in this case being Shanhaiguan), means the rush to Manchuria of the Han Chinese, especially from Shandong Peninsula, during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Previously this region was outside China proper, but sometimes under the control, or at least within the sphere of influence, of the dynasty ruling China. During the first two centuries of the reign of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China, it was closed to settlement by Han Chinese. The region is now known as Northeast China, and has an overwhelmingly Han population.

 

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

(Heilongjiang, Jilin, Shandong, Shanxi, Henan)

 

 

Henan

Henan (河南), is a province of the People's Republic of China, located eastern central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is 豫, named after Yuzhou Province (豫州), a Han Dynasty province (zhou) that included parts of Henan. The name Henan means "south of the (Yellow) River" (Huang He).

With nearly 100 million people, Henan is the most populous province of China by residency. It borders Hebei to the north, Shandong to the northeast, Anhui to the southeast, Hubei to the south, Shaanxi to the west, and Shanxi to the northwest.

Henan is often called Zhongyuan (中原) or Zhongzhou (中州), literally "central plains" or "midland"; this name is also broadly applied to the entire North China Plain. Henan is traditionally regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization.

Northern Henan, along the Yellow River, was the core area of ancient China for at least the first half of Chinese history. The two cities of Luoyang and Kaifeng each served as the capital city of a long list of dynasties.

Archaeological sites reveal that prehistoric cultures such as the Yangshao Culture and Longshan Culture were active in what is now northern Henan. Although there have been factual data that prove reptilian fossils and statues found there of non human intelligent life civilizations that existed there that have pre-dated future civilizations to come as in following a pre-set order on how to live life in Henan for many years to come. Also shortly after the Erlitou culture, which has been controversially identified with the Xia Dynasty, the first Chinese dynasty as described in Chinese records, was also centered in Henan.

The first literate dynasty of China, the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), was centered in Henan. Their last capital, Yin, was located at the modern city of Anyang, Henan.

In the 11th century BC, the Zhou Dynasty arrived from the west and destroyed the Shang Dynasty. Their capital was located initially in Hao (near present day Xi'an in Shaanxi province). In 722 BC, it was moved to Luoyang, Henan. This began the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, a period of warfare and rivalry. What is now Henan was divided into a variety of small states, including Hua (destroyed by Qin in 627BC), Chen, Cai, Cao, Zheng, Wei (衛), and powerful Jin from Shanxi to the north. Later on these were replaced with Han and Wei (魏). Throughout this period the state of Chu also held much of what is now southern Henan.

In 221 BC, the state of Qin from what is now Shaanxi completed the unification of China, establishing the first unified Chinese state, the Qin Dynasty.

 

 

* Y-chromosome Evidence for Common Ancestry of Three Chinese Populations with a High Risk of Esophageal Cancer by Huang H, et al.

Abstract: High rates of esophageal cancer (EC) are found in people of the Henan Taihang Mountain, Fujian Minnan, and Chaoshan regions of China. Historical records describe great waves of populations migrating from north-central China (the Henan and Shanxi Hans) through coastal Fujian Province to the Chaoshan plain. Although these regions are geographically distant, we hypothesized that EC high-risk populations in these three areas could share a common ancestry. Accordingly, we used 16 East Asian-specific Y-chromosome biallelic markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms; Y-SNPs) and six Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (Y-STR) loci to infer the origin of the EC high-risk Chaoshan population (CSP) and the genetic relationship between the CSP and the EC high-risk Henan Taihang Mountain population (HTMP) and Fujian population (FJP). The predominant haplogroups in these three populations are O3*, O3e*, and O3e1, with no significant difference between the populations in the frequency of these genotypes. Frequency distribution and principal component analysis revealed that the CSP is closely related to the HTMP and FJP, even though the former is geographically nearer to other populations (Guangfu and Hakka clans). The FJP is between the CSP and HTMP in the principal component plot. The CSP, FJP and HTMP are more closely related to Chinese Hans than to minorities, except Manchu Chinese, and are descendants of Sino-Tibetans, not Baiyues. Correlation analysis, hierarchical clustering analysis, and phylogenetic analysis (neighbor-joining tree) all support close genetic relatedness among the CSP, FJP and HTMP. The network for haplogroup O3 (including O3*, O3e* and O3e1) showed that the HTMP have highest STR haplotype diversity, suggesting that the HTMP may be a progenitor population for the CSP and FJP. These findings support the potentially important role of shared ancestry in understanding more about the genetic susceptibility in EC etiology in high-risk populations and have implications for determining the molecular basis of this disease.

 

The Two-dimensional Map of Y-SNP Frequencies

(2, Fujian EC high-risk population; 3, Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population; 4, Hebei Han, 11, Henan Han, 20.; Jiangsu Han)

1, Chaoshan EC high-risk population; 2, Fujian EC high-risk population; 3, Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population; 4, Hebei Han; 5, Liaoning Han; 6, Xinjiang Han; 7, Shangdong Han; 8, Gansu Han; 9, Shanxi Han; 10, Neimeng Han; 11, Henan Han; 12, Hakka Han; 13, Hunan Han; 14, Hubei Han; 15, Guangzhou Han; 16, Zhejiang Han; 17, Jiangxi Han; 18, Shanghai Han; 19, Anhui Han; 20, Jiangsu Han; 21, Yunnan Han; 22, Guangxi Han; 23, Sichuan Han. 4–11 refer to Northern Han and 12–23 to Southern Han.

 

The Two-dimensional Graphs of Y-STR Frequencies

(2. Fujian EC high-risk population, 3. Henan Taihan Mountain EC high-risk population, 16. Manchu)

(4. Fujian Han, 10. Dongbei Han, 13. Tibetan, 18, Naxi, 14, Uygur; 15, Krigiz )

The three EC high-risk populations and Manchu form 2 clusters; the three Northern Han (labeled 10–12) and five Southern Han populations (labeled 5–9) form another group. The remaining populations are scattered. 1, Chaoshan EC high-risk population; 2, Fujian EC high-risk population; 3, Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population; 4, Fujian Han; 5, Anhui Han; 6, Yunnan Han; 7, Henan Han; 8, Zhejiang Han; 9, Guangzhou Han; 10, Dongbei Han; 11, Beijing Han; 12, Tianjing Han; 13, Tibetan; 14, Uygur; 15, Krigiz; 16, Manchu; 17, Shui; 18, Naxi; 19, Zhuang. 4–9 refer to Southern Hans, 10–12 to Northern Hans, 13–17 to Northern minority nationalities, 18–19 to Southern minority nationalities.

 

Geographic Distribution of the Three Studied EC High-risk Populations

 

* Refined Geographic Distribution of the Oriental ALDH2*504Lys (nee 487Lys) Variant by Hui Li, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) is one of the most important enzymes in human alcohol metabolism. The oriental ALDH2*504Lys variant functions as a dominant negative greatly reducing activity in heterozygotes and abolishing activity in homozygotes. This allele is associated with serious disorders such as alcohol liver disease, late onset Alzheimer disease, colorectal cancer, and esophageal cancer, and is best known for protection against alcoholism. Many hundreds of papers in various languages have been published on this variant, providing allele frequency data for many different populations. To develop a highly refined global geographic distribution of ALDH2*504Lys, we have collected new data on 4,091 individuals from 86 population samples and assembled published data on a total of 80,691 individuals from 366 population samples. The allele is essentially absent in all parts of the world except East Asia. The ALDH2*504Lys allele has its highest frequency in Southeast China, and occurs in most areas of China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Indochina with frequencies gradually declining radially from Southeast China. As the indigenous populations in South China have much lower frequencies than the southern Han migrants from Central China, we conclude that ALDH2*504Lys was carried by Han Chinese as they spread throughout East Asia. Esophageal cancer, with its highest incidence in East Asia, may be associated with ALDH2*504Lys because of a toxic effect of increased acetaldehyde in the tissue where ingested ethanol has its highest concentration. While the distributions of esophageal cancer and ALDH2*504Lys do not precisely correlate, that does not disprove the hypothesis. In general the study of fine scale geographic distributions of ALDH2*504Lys and diseases may help in understanding the multiple relationships among genes, diseases, environments, and cultures.

The Geographic Distribution of ALDH2*504Lys Allele Frequency

 

Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Yan (燕國) -- He Bei Yu (Hebei Province)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Ba (巴國) / Shu (蜀國) -- Cantonese Language (Cantonese People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Qin / Jin (晉國) -- Guan Zhong Yu -- Northern (Mandarin)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Guan Dong Yu -- Zhong Yuan Yu -- Gan Language
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Guan Dong Yu -- Zhong Yuan Yu -- Hakka Language (Hakka People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Guan Dong Yu -- Zhong Yuan Yu -- Min Language (Minnan, Teochew, Foochow People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qi (齊國) -- Min Language (Minnan, Teochew, Foochow People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Wu (吳國) -- Shanghainese Language (Shanghainese People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Wu -- Hui Language (Anhui Province)
Zhou Dynasty -- Chu (楚國)-- Xiang Language (Hunan Province)

 

Qi State

Map of the Qi State (map by KarnRedsun)

Qi (齊國) was a powerful state during the Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States in ancient China. Its capital was Linzi, which is part of the present city of Zibo in Shandong Province.

Qi was founded around 1046 B.C. as one of the many states of the Zhou Dynasty. The first ruler appointed for Qi is Jiang Shang, the most powerful official during that time. The Jiang family ruled Qi for several centuries before it was replaced by the Tian family in 386 BC. In 221 BC, Qi was the last state of pre-Imperial China to be conquered by the State of Qin, the final obstacle which allowed the Qin Dynasty to consolidate the first centralized and imperial empire over China.

History: Western Zhou (1046-771 BC): When the Zhou dynasty founded in 1046BC, King Wu of Zhou assigned the conquered lands as hereditary fiefs to his relatives and ministers. Shandong was given Jiang Ziya, his most important general. Little information survives from this period. King Yi of Zhou (Ji Xie) (865-858) attacked Qi and boiled the duke of Qi in a cauldron. At the time of King Xuan of Zhou (827-782) there was a succession struggle. During this time many of the native Dongyi peoples were absorbed into the Qi state.

Spring and Autumn Period (771-480 BC): In 706 Qi was attacked by the Shan Rong. Qi rose to prominence under Duke Huan of Qi (685-643). He and his minister Guan Zhong strengthened the state by centralizing it. He annexed 35 neighboring states and brought others into submission. In 667 met with the rulers of Lu, Song, Chen and Zheng and was elected leader. Subsequently King Hui of Zhou appointed him 'Ba' or Hegemon. He attacked Wey for supporting a rival of the Zhou king and intervened in the affairs of Lu. In 664 he protected Yan from the Rong. In 659 he protected Xing and in 660, Wey, both from the Chi Di. In 656 he blocked the northward expansion of Chu. At his death, his sons quarreled and the hegemony passed to Jin.

In 632 Qi helped Jin defeat Chu at the Battle of Chengpu. In 589 Qi was defeated by Jin. In 579 the four great powers of Qin (west), Jin (center), Chu (south) and Qi (east) met to declare a truce and limit their military strength. In 546 a similar four-power conference recognized several smaller states as satellites of Qi, Jin and Qin.

Warring States Period (480-221 BC): Early in the period Qi annexed a number of smaller states. Qi was one of the first states to patronize scholars. In 532 the Tian (田) clan destroyed several rival families and came to dominate the state. In 485 the Tian killed the ducal heir and fought several rival clans. In 481 the Tian chief killed a puppet duke, most of the ruler's family and a number of rival chiefs. He took control of most of the state and left the Duke with only the capital of Linzi and the area around Mount Tai. In 386 the Tian family replaced the Jiang family as dukes. In 221 Qi was the last of the warring states to be conquered by Qin, thereby putting an end to the wars and uniting China under the Qin Dynasty.

 

* Molecular Genetic Analysis of Remains of a 2,000-year-old Human Population in China-and Its Relevance for the Origin of the Modern Japanese Population by H. Oota, et al. (1999)

Abstract: We extracted DNA from the human remains excavated from the Yixi site (approximately 2,000 years before the present) in the Shandong peninsula of China and, through PCR amplification, determined nucleotide sequences of their mitochondrial D-loop regions. Nucleotide diversity of the ancient Yixi people was similar to those of modern populations. Modern humans in Asia and the circum-Pacific region are divided into six radiation groups, on the basis of the phylogenetic network constructed by means of 414 mtDNA types from 1, 298 individuals. We compared the ancient Yixi people with the modern Asian and the circum-Pacific populations, using two indices: frequency distribution of the radiation groups and genetic distances among populations. Both revealed that the closest genetic relatedness is between the ancient Yixi people and the modern Taiwan Han Chinese. The Yixi people show closer genetic affinity with Mongolians, mainland Japanese, and Koreans than with Ainu and Ryukyu Japanese and less genetic resemblance with Jomon people and Yayoi people, their predecessors and contemporaries, respectively, in ancient Japan."

 

* 分子人類學所見歷史上閩越族群的消失 by 李輝

現代福建的人群主要是漢藏語系漢語族齊語支的漢族群體，因為齊語支現在主要分佈在福建，所以也叫閩語支。齊語支是漢語三大語支之一，形成於河南東部到山東一帶，可能是漢語在東夷語的影響下形成的。福建的齊語支起源較早。因為發現閩語中有許\多特徵保留著漢代的漢語音韻樣式，所以可能是漢代來到福建的。如果是這樣的話，就和閩越族被強制移民的時間相吻合了。

 

東夷是中國古代，尤其是商朝、周朝時期，對東部部族的稱呼，因有九支主要部族又稱九夷。隨著商代的東夷與華夏的融合，東夷後來改為對東方外族的泛稱。其認定範圍也隨之更改。從黃帝時期的山東，到河南一帶, 再到日後秦漢時期的朝鮮半島，日本列島。(朝鮮和韓國認為：現代朝鮮人可能是東夷的一支。) 在《三國志·魏書》中，扶餘、高句麗、沃沮、東濊也是東夷。唐杜佑《通典》將朝鮮、新羅、倭、高句麗、流求等歸入東夷，明代嚴從簡將日本、朝鮮、琉球歸入東夷。

東夷文化是中國最古老的文明之一。東夷文化的許多方面都與中原文明不分伯仲。東夷人是中國最古老文字、弓箭、禮制和金屬的發明和使用者。

 

 

Jiangsu

Jiangsu (江蘇) is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning (now Nanjing), and su, for the city of Suzhou.

Jiangsu has a coastline of over one thousand kilometers along the Yellow Sea, and the Yangtze River passes through its southern parts. Since the inception of economic reforms in 1978, Jiangsu has been a hot spot for economic development, and is now one of China's most prosperous provinces. The wealth divide between the rich southern regions and the north, however, remains a prominent issue in the province.

History: During the earliest Chinese dynasties, the area in what is now Jiangsu was far removed from the center of Chinese civilization, which was in the northwest Henan; it was home of the Huai Yi (淮夷), an ancient ethnic group. During the Zhou Dynasty more contact was made, and eventually the state of Wu (centered at Gusu, now Suzhou) appeared as a vassal to the Zhou Dynasty in south Jiangsu, one of the many hundreds of states that existed across northern and central China at that time. Near the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, Wu became a great power under King Helu of Wu, and was able to defeat in 484 BC the state of Qi, a major power in the north in modern-day Shandong province, and contest for the position of overlord over all states of China. The state of Wu was subjugated in 473 BC by the state of Yue, another state that had emerged to the south in modern-day Zhejiang province. Yue was in turn subjugated by the powerful state of Chu from the west in 333 BC. Eventually the state of Qin swept away all the other states, and established China as a unified nation in 221 BC.

Under the reign of the Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD), which brought China to its first golden age, Jiangsu was a relative backwater, far removed from the centers of civilization in the North China Plain. Jiangsu was at that time administered under two zhou (provinces): Xuzhou Province in the north, and Yangzhou Province in the south. Although south Jiangsu was eventually the base for the kingdom of Wu (one of the Three Kingdoms from 222 to 280), it did not become significant role until the invasion of northern nomads during the Western Jin Dynasty, starting from the fourth century. As northern nomadic groups established kingdoms across the north, ethnic Han Chinese aristocracy fled southwards and set up a refugee Eastern Jin Dynasty in 317, in Jiankang (modern day Nanjing). From then until 581 (a period known as the Southern and Northern Dynasties), Nanjing in south Jiangsu was the base of four more ethnic Han Chinese dynasties facing off with northern barbarian (but increasingly sinicized) dynasties. In the meantime, north Jiangsu was a buffer of sorts between north and south; it initially started as a part of southern dynasties, but as northern dynasties gained more ground, it became part of northern dynasties.

 

* Yayoi Linked to Yangtze Area: DNA Tests Reveal Similarities to Early Wet-Rice Farmers by Japan Times

Excerpt: Some of the first wet-rice farmers in Japan might have migrated from the lower basin of China's Yangtze River more than 2,000 years ago, Japanese and Chinese researchers said Thursday.

This was suggested by DNA tests conducted by the researchers that showed genetic similarities between human remains from the Yayoi Period found in southwestern Japan and the early Han Dynasty found in China's central Jiangsu Province, Satoshi Yamaguchi told reporters.

People who introduced irrigation techniques to the Japanese archipelago in the Yayoi Period (250 B.C.-300) were believed to have come to Japan either from the Korean Peninsula across the Tsushima Strait, or from northern China across the Yellow Sea.

The latest findings, however, bolster another theory suggesting the origin of the Yayoi people was an area south of the Yangtze, which is believed to be the birthplace of irrigated rice cultivation.

Yamaguchi, a researcher at Japan's National Science Museum, said the researchers compared Yayoi remains found in Yamaguchi and Fukuoka prefectures with those from early Han (202 B.C.-8) in Jiangsu in a three-year project begun in 1996.

The researchers found many similarities between the skulls and limbs of Yayoi people and the Jiangsu remains.
Two Jiangsu skulls showed spots where the front teeth had been pulled, a practice common in Japan in the Yayoi and preceding Jomon Period.

But the most persuasive findings resulted from tests revealing that genetic samples from three of 36 Jiangsu skeletons also matched part of the DNA base arrangements of samples from the Yayoi remains, the scientists said.

 

 

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