<%@LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT" CODEPAGE="65001"%> Finn Chuang

Finn Chuang

 

Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup: D (DNA test by Family Tree DNA)

 

HVR1 Haplogroup D

HVR1 differences from CRS

 16162G
  16164G
  16172C
  16182C
  16183C
  16189C
  16223T
  16362C

 

 

Y-DNA Haplogroup: O-M175 (DNA test by The Genographic Project)

 

Locus
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
DYS#
393
390
19*
391
385a
385b
426
388
439
389-1
392
389-2***
Alleles
12
24
15
10
12
17
11
12
12
12
12
28

 

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Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Understanding Y-STR Test Results

Y-DNA tests generally examine 10-67 STR markers on the Y chromosome but over 100 markers are available. STR test results provide the personal haplotype.

 

STR Markers

A chromosome contains sequences of repeating nucleotides known as short tandem repeats (STRs). The number of repetitions varies from one person to another and a particular number of repetitions is known as an allele of the marker. An STR on the Y chromosome is designated by a DYS number (DNA Y-chromosome Segment number). For example, Value 12 at DYS393 means the DYS393 sequence of nucleotides is repeated 12 times.

 

Haplotype

A Y-DNA haplotype is the numbered results of a genealogical Y-DNA test. Each allele value has a distinctive frequency within a population. For example, at DYS455, the results will show 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12 repeats, with 11 being most common. For high marker tests the allele frequencies provide a signature for a surname lineage.

The test results are then compared to another project member's results to determine the time frame in which the two people shared a most recent common ancestor (MRCA). If the two tests match on 37 markers, there is a 50% probability that the MRCA was fewer than 5 generations ago and a 90% probability that the MRCA was fewer than 17 generations ago.

It is important to check the number of markers that will be tested before choosing a test. For example, the Genographic Project looks at only 12 markers, while most laboratories and surname projects recommend testing at least 25. The more markers that are tested, the more discriminating and powerful the results will be. A 12 marker STR test is usually not discriminating enough to provide conclusive results for a common surname.

STRs results may also indicate a likely haplogroup, though this can only be confirmed by specifically testing for that Haplogroups' single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

 

Y-STR Haplotypes

Unlike the UEPs, the Y-STRs mutate much more easily, which gives them much more resolution to distinguish recent genealogy. But it also means that, rather than the population of descendants of a genetic event all sharing the same result, the Y-STR haplotypes are likely to have spread apart, to form a cluster of more or less similar results. Typically, this cluster will have a definite most probable center, the modal haplotype (presumably close to the haplotype of the original founding event), and also a haplotype diversity - the degree to which it has become spread out. The further in the past the defining event occurred, and the more that subsequent population growth occurred early, the greater the haplotype diversity for a particular number of descendants will be. On the other hand, if the haplotype diversity is smaller for a particular number of descendants, this may indicate a more recent common ancestor, or that a population expansion has occurred more recently.

It is important to note that, unlike for UEPs, there is no guarantee that two individuals with a similar Y-STR haplotype will necessarily share a similar ancestry. There is no uniqueness about Y-STR events. Instead, the clusters of Y-STR haplotype results inheriting from different events and different histories all tend to overlap.

Thus, although sometimes a Y-STR haplotype may be directly indicative of a particular Y-DNA haplogroup, it is in most cases a long time since the haplogroups' defining events, so typically the cluster of Y-STR haplotype results associated with descendents of that event has become rather broad, and will tend to significantly overlap the (similarly broad) clusters of Y-STR haplotypes associated with other haplogroups, making it impossible to predict with absolute certainty to which Y-DNA haplogroup a Y-STR haplotype would point. All that can be done from the Y-STRs, if the UEPs are not actually tested, is to predict probabilities for haplogroup ancestry, but not certainties.

 

Databases

In genetic genealogy, the following is a list of sponsored databases containing publicly submitted surnames and Y-STR haplotypes:

 

__________________________________________________________________________________

 

Y-STR Analysis by Y-STR Haplotype Reference Database (YHRD) 

 

Matching Haplotypes

19   389i   389ii   390   391   392   393   385   438   439   437   448   456   458   635   ygatah4   n  
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,17   12             1

 

Population Summary

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 768
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia

 

 

Map of Nepal

Perched on the southern slopes of the mighty Himalayas, Nepal is an ethnically diverse, culturally rich and geographically varied country with some of the world's highest mountain peaks.

Nepalis are descendants of migrants from parts of earlier greater Nepal, Tibet, India and parts of Burma and Yunnan along with native tribal population. Among the earliest inhabitants were the Kirat of east mid-region, Newar of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharu in the southern Terai region. The ancestors of the Bahun and Chhetri caste groups migrated eastward from Kumaon, Garhwal and Kashmir, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to North Burma, Yunnan and Tibet, e.g. the Gurung and Magar in the west, Rai and Limbu in the east, and Sherpa and Bhotia in the north.

In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% of the land, much of the population is physically and culturally similar to the Indo-Aryans of northern India. Indo-Aryan and East Asian looking mixed people live in the hill region. The mountainous region is sparsely populated above 3,000 meters, but in central and western Nepal ethnic Tibetans inhabit even higher semi-arid valleys north of the high Himalaya. Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 5 percent of the nation's population. Nepal is a multilingual, multireligious and multiethnic society.

 

 

Neighbor Haplotypes

19   389i   389ii   390   391   392   393   385   438   439   437   448   456   458   635   ygatah4   n
15 12 28 23 10 12 12 12,17 12 15
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,16 12 8
15 12 28 24 10 11 12 12,17 12 3
15 12 28 24 10 13 12 12,17 12 3
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 13,17 12 2
14 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,17 12 1
15 12 29 24 10 12 12 12,17 12 1
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,18 12 1
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,17 11 1
16 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 11 27 24 10 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 13 29 24 10 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 12 27 24 10 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 12 28 25 10 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 12 28 24 9 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 12 28 24 11 12 12 12,17 12 0
15 12 28 24 10 12 11 12,17 12 0
15 12 28 24 10 12 13 12,17 12 0
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 11,17 12 0
15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12,17 13 0

 

Map of Asia

 

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 23 10 12 12 12/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
3 of 422
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia
3 of 4451
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia
2 of 118
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia
1 of 320
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia
1 of 95
Eurasian - Altaic
Asia
1 of 331
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia
1 of 575
East Asian - Korean
Asia
1 of 207
East Asian - Japanese
Asia
1 of 101
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia
1 of 768
East Asian - Sino Tibetan
Asia

 

Chinese Singaporeans are people of Chinese descent who are born in or emigrated to Singapore and have attained citizenship or permanent residence status. Most of the Chinese in Singapore belong to several linguistic-cultural groups, originating from mainly the southern parts of China. The Hokkien, Teochew and Hainanese jointly form more than three-quarters of the Chinese population. The Cantonese, Hakka and other groups account for most of the remainder.

The Hokkiens constitute around 41% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most originated from the southern parts of the Fujian province, primarily Xiamen, Zhangzhou (漳州) and Quanzhou (泉州).

 

Malaysian Chinese is a Malaysian of Chinese origin. Most are descendants of Chinese who arrived between the fifteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries.

The ancestral origins of the Malaysian Chinese are diverse in nature and they are identified by their linguistic differences and place of origin. The vast majority of ethnic Chinese came from the Fujian and Guangdong provinces in Southern China, and in the 19th and early 20th centuries various trade and professions became synomynous with individual dialect groups. As a result, distribution of the various dialect groups across Malaya and North Borneo varied from region to region, with each town or region being populated by ethnic Chinese of one specific dialect group. A governmental statistic in 2000 classifies the dialect affiliation of the ethnic Chinese in Malaysia:

Chinese settlers from the southern parts of Fujian constitute the largest group, and generally identified as Hokkien. The bulk of Chinese settlers in Malaya before the 18th century came from Amoy and Zhangzhou and settled primarily in Penang and Malacca, where they formed the bulk of the local Chinese populace.

 

Fujian

Fujian is a province on the southeast coast of China.

Recent archaeological discoveries demonstrate that Fujian (especially the northern coastal region around Fuzhou) had entered the Neolithic Age by the middle of the 6th millennium BC. From the Keqiutou site (7450-5590 BP), an early Neolithic site in Pingtan Island located about 70 km southeast of Fuzhou, numerous tools made of stones, shells, bones, jades, and ceramics (including wheel-made-ceramics) have been unearthed, together with spinning wheels, a definitive evidence of weaving.

The Tanshishan (昙石山) site (5500-4000 BP) in suburban Fuzhou spans the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Age where semi-underground circular buildings were found in the lower level. The Huangtulun (黄土崙) site (ca.1325 BC), also in suburban Fuzhou, was of the Bronze Age in character.

This area was also the place for the kingdom of Minyue. The word "Mǐnyuè" was derived by combining "Mǐn" (閩), perhaps an ethnic name and associated with the Chinese word for barbarians (蠻), and "Yue", after the State of Yue, a Spring and Autumn Period kingdom in Zhejiang Province to the north. This is because the royal family of Yuè fled to Fujian after their kingdom was annexed by the State of Chu in 306 BC. Mǐn is also the name of the main river in this area, but the ethnonym is probably earlier.

Minyue was a de facto kingdom until the emperor of Qin Dynasty, the first unified imperial Chinese state, abolished the status.

 

Map of Zhejiang

Zhejiang (浙江) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang (crooked river) was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital. The name of the province is often abbreviated to "Zhe" (浙).

Zhejiang borders Jiangsu province and Shanghai municipality to the north, Anhui province to the northwest, Jiangxi province to the west, and Fujian province to the south; to the east is the East China Sea, beyond which lie the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.

Zhejiang was outside the sphere of influence of early Chinese civilization during the Shang Dynasty (sixteenth century to eleventh century BC). Instead it was populated by peoples collectively known as the Yue, such as the Dongyue and the Ouyue. Starting from the Spring and Autumn Period, a state of Yue emerged in northern Zhejiang that was heavily influenced by Chinese civilization further north, and under King Goujian of Yue it reached its zenith and was able to wipe out, in 473 BC, the state of Wu further north, a major power at the time. In 333 BC, this state was in turn conquered by the state of Chu further west; and the state of Qin in turn subjugated all the states of China under its control in 221 BC, thereby establishing a unified Chinese empire.

Throughout the Qin Dynasty (221 to 206 BC) and Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD), Zhejiang was under the control of the unified Chinese state, though it was a frontier area at best, and southern Zhejiang was not under anything more than nominal control, it being still inhabited by Yue peoples with their own political and social structures.

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 24 10 11 12 12/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
3 of 768 Nepal [Nepalese] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia
1 of 856 Bhutan [Bhutanese] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia
1 of 320 Yunnan, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia
1 of 4451 Zhejiang, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia
1 of 133 Qinghai, China [Salar] Eurasian - Altaic Asia
1 of 103 Sarawak, Malaysia [Iban] East Asian - Austronesian Asia

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 24 10 11 12 12/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 193 Santander, Colombia [Mestizo] Admixed Latin America
1 of 50 Córdoba, Colombia [Mestizo] Admixed Latin America
1 of 416 Buenos Aires, Argentina [European] Eurasian - European Latin America

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 24 10 13 12 12/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 4451 Zhejiang, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia
1 of 575 Seoul, South Korea [Korean] East Asian - Korean Asia
1 of 250 London, United Kingdom [Indo-Pakistani] Eurasian - Indian Europe

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 24 10 12 12 13/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 4451 Zhejiang, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia
1 of 501 Central Thailand, Thailand [Thai] East Asian - Thai Asia

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 14 12 28 24 10 12 12 12/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 331 Malaysia [Han Chinese] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 29 24 10 12 12 12/17 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 4451 Zhejiang, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12/18 12):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 4451 Zhejiang, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia

 

Population Summary (Haplotype 15 12 28 24 10 12 12 12/17 11):

n of N
Geoposition [Population]
Metapopulation
Continent
1 of 4451 Zhejiang, China [Han] East Asian - Sino Tibetan Asia

 

___________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Y-DNA Deep Clade Analysis by Family Tree DNA:

Confirmed Haplogroup: O3a3c*: M117- M122+ M134+ M159- M162- M7- P101- P93+

 

 

SNP Markers

A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a change to a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence. The relative mutation rate for an SNP is extremely low. This makes them ideal for marking the history of the human genetic tree. SNPs are named with a letter code and a number. The letter indicates the lab or research team that discovered the SNP. The number indicates the order in which it was discovered. For example M173 is the 173rd SNP documented by the group who uses the letter M.

Haplogroup

Haplogroups are large groups of haplotypes that can be used to define genetic populations and are often geographically oriented.

Y-DNA haplogroups are determined by SNP tests. SNPs are locations on the DNA where one nucleotide has "mutated" or "switched" to a different nucleotide. The nucleotide switch must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a useful SNP. If it occurs in less than 1% of the population, it is considered a personal SNP.

Different Y-DNA haplogroups identify genetic populations which are often intricately geographically oriented, reflecting the migrations of current individuals' direct patrilineal ancestors tens of thousands of years ago.

 

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Y-DNA: O3a3c* [M117- M122+ M134+ M159- M162- M7- P101- P93+]

 

The subclades of Haplogroup O with their defining mutation:

.NO (M214)

 

* (haplogroup): In human genetics, mtDNA haplogroups and Y-DNA haplogroups are designated by letters of the alphabet. When a person takes a genealogical DNA test, the presence of an asterisk (*) in their test result indicates that they are a member of a particular haplogroup, but not of a known subclade (subdivision). Specifically, they do not possess any of the mutations that would place him/her in one of the known "downstream" subclades.

For example, Haplogroup O* lineages belong to Haplogroup O but do not display any of the later mutations that define the major subclades O1, O2, and O3; also written as haplogroup O-M175*(xO1a-M119,O2a-M95,O3-M122)

 

 

Phylogenetic Tree Indicating All Subclades Associated with Subclade O3 in Haplogroup O from Genebase

 

 

O Subclades from The Power of Language Over the Past: Tai settlement and Tai Linguistics in Southern China and Northern Vietnam by Jerold A. Edmondson

 

 

* Asian Ancestry Based on Studies of Y-DNA Variation: Part 2. Additional migrations and reach. Travels south to Oceania, north to the Americas and in between by Mark S. Lechner

Phylogeography of Y-chromosome Haplogroup O Subclades

 

Phylogeography of Y-chromosome Haplogroup O Subclades in China

 

 

* Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup O by Wendy Tymchuk, Genebase.com

Subclade O3a3c
Estimated by one study to be 9,200 ± 2,700 years old (Sengupta et al. 2006), whereas another study estimated that O3a3c diverged 25,357 ± 1,592 years ago (Shi et al 2005).  This subclade can be found in up to 20% of men, depending on the population (see Table 8).  Austroasiatic-speaking populations show a clear association with Subclade O2a in India and Southeast Asia (Su et al. 2000, Kayser et al. 2003) whereas Tibeto-Burman speaking groups tend to be associated with O3a3c.  An absence of Astroasiatic populations between East India and Southeast Asia may indicate a recent (mid-Halocene) migration of Tibeto-Burman groups to this region bearing the Subclade O3a3c (Cordeaux et al. 2004).  However, Tibeto-Burman groups in this region have both O3a3c and O2a subclades, suggesting that the region did consist of Austroasiatic groups that intermixed with Tibeto-Burman groups moving into the region (Sahoo et al. 2006). 

O3a3c - M134 Frequency Table

Subclade

Region

Country

Frequency

n

Reference

O3a3c - M134

Central Asia

Mongolia/Buryatia

0.102

226

Sahoo et al 2006

 

Central Asia

 

0.155

419

Hammer et al 2006

 

Central Asia

 

0.032

126

Karafet et al 2001

 

Central Asia

 

0.048

165

Sahoo et al 2006

 

East Asia

China (southern)

0.182

384

Karafet et al 2005

 

East Asia

China (Taosi / Longshan)

0.200

5

Li et al 2007

 

East Asia

Japan

0.104

259

Hammer et al 2006

 

East Asia

Korea

0.250

216

Kim et al 2006

 

East Asia

Northeast

0.107

441

Hammer et al 2006

 

East Asia

 

0.141

754

Karafet et al 2001

 

East Asia

 

0.154

175

Sengupta et al 2006

 

India

 

0.019

1074

Sahoo et al 2006

 

India

 

0.080

728

Sengupta et al 2006

 

Middle East

Pakistan

0.006

176

Sengupta et al 2006

 

Middle East

Turkey

0.000

523

Sahoo et al 2006

 

Oceania

 

0.014

209

Hammer et al 2006

 

Oceania

 

0.017

175

Karafet et al 2005

 

South Asia

 

0.002

496

Hammer et al 2006

 

South Asia

 

0.002

496

Karafet et al 2005

 

Southeast Asia

 

0.124

683

Hammer et al 2006

 

Southeast Asia

 

0.161

503

Karafet et al 2001

 

Southeast Asia

 

0.023

825

Karafet et al 2005

 

Southeast Asia

 

0.100

289

Sahoo et al 2006

 

A Summary of the Frequency Distribution of Deeper Clades Within Haplogroup O

 

 

* Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122 by Hong Shi, et al.

The Frequency Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in East Asian and Other Continental Populations

Abstract: The prehistoric peopling of East Asia by modern humans remains controversial with respect to early population migrations. Here, we present a systematic sampling and genetic screening of an East Asian–specific Y-chromosome haplogroup (O3-M122) in 2,332 individuals from diverse East Asian populations. Our results indicate that the O3-M122 lineage is dominant in East Asian populations, with an average frequency of 44.3%. The microsatellite data show that the O3-M122 haplotypes in southern East Asia are more diverse than those in northern East Asia, suggesting a southern origin of the O3-M122 mutation. It was estimated that the early northward migration of the O3-M122 lineages in East Asia occurred ~25,000–30,000 years ago, consistent with the fossil records of modern humans in East Asia.

 

The Phylogenetic Relationships of the O3-M122 SNPs and Haplotypes

 

The Contour Map of the Y-haplotype M134–Frequency Distribution

 

 

* Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times by Yali Xue, et al.

Haplogroup Frequencies in East Asian Populations

Haplogroup Daur Ewenki Hezhe Hui Manchu Inner Mongolian Oroqen Uygur (Urumqi) Uygur (Yili) Xibe
N
39
26
45
35
35
45
31
31
39
41
O3e*(xO3e1)
  
1
2
1
2
3
1
1
2
5
%
  
3.9
4.4
2.9
5.7
6.7
3.2
3.2
5.1
12.2

 

Haplogroup Han (Harbin) Han (Yili) Korean (China) Buyi Hani Li Qiang She Tibetans Yao (Bama) Yao (Liannan)
N
35
32
25
35
34
34
33
34
35
35
35
O3e*(xO3e1)
8
1
  
3
3
1
4
2
1
  
2
%
22.9
3.1
  
8.6
8.8
2.9
12.1
5.9
2.9
  
5.7

 

Haplogroup
 Han (Chengdu) Han (Lanzhou) Han (Meixian) Japanese Korean (Korea) Outer Mongolian Total
N
34
30
35
47
43
65
988
O3e*(xO3e1)
5
2
1
2
5
1
59
%
14.7
6.7
2.9
4.3
11.6
1.5
6

 

 

Map of Manchuria (Northeast China)

Harbin (哈爾濱); is a sub-provincial city and the capital of the Heilongjiang Province in Northeast China. It lies on the southern bank of the Songhua River. Harbin is ranked as the tenth largest city in China, serving as a key political, economic, scientific, cultural and communications center of Northeastern China.

Harbin is originally a Manchu (滿族) word meaning "a place for drying fishing nets". Harbin bears the nicknames "The Pearl on the swan's neck" because the shape of Heilongjiang resembles a swan, and "Ice City" for its long and cold winter.

Human settlement in the Harbin area dates from at least 2200 BC (late Stone Age). It was formerly called Pokai.

The modern city of Harbin originated in 1898 from a small village, with the start of the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (KVZhD) by Russia, an extension of the Trans-Siberian Railway, shortcutting substantially the distance to Vladivostok and creating a link to the port city of Dalny (Dalian) and the Russian Naval Base Port Arthur.

 

The Xibe (錫伯族) are a Tungusic ethnic group living mostly in northeast China and Xinjiang. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

The Xibe originally lived on the Nonni and Songhua river valleys in central Manchuria. They are known as one of the nine states that were defeated by Nurhaci in the Battle of Gure in 1593. They were under loose domination of the Khorchin Mongols even after the Khorchin came under the control of the Manchu Qing Dynasty.

The Xibe started to make direct contact with the Qing Dynasty when it conducted military campaigns against Russia. They provided logistical support to the Qing. In 1692, the Khorchin dedicated the Xibe, the Gūwalca and the Daur to the Kangxi Emperor in exchange for silver. The Xibe was incorporated into the Eight Banners and were stationed in Qiqihar and other cities in Manchuria.

After conquering eastern Turkestan, the Qianlong Emperor garrisoned part of the Xibe there in 1764 to defend the new frontier. They formed a community in the Qapqal region south of the Ili River.

 

Map of Sichuan

The Qiang people (羌族) are an ethnic group of China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, with a population of approximately 200,000, living mainly in northwestern part of Sichuan province. Nowadays, the Qiang are only a small segment of the Chinese population, but they are commonly believed to be an old, once strong and populous people whose history can be traced at least to the Shang Dynasty and whose offsprings are thought to include some portion of the modern Tibetans, some portion of the modern Han Chinese and many minority ethnic groups in Western China.

In ancient China literature, Qiang was usually used as a generic term for the non-Huaxia peoples in the west part of modern China. These peoples were frequently at war with the inhabitants of the Yellow River valley, the ancestors of many modern ethnic Hans. Not until the rise of the state of Qin under Duke Mu was the Qiang expansion effectively checked. A Qiang leader, Yao Chang founded the Later Qin kingdom (384-417) during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history.

The structure of the graph 羌 also reflects this view. It was composed of two elements: 人 (man) and 羊 (sheep), suggesting a sheep-herding people. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) and Wei-Jin periods (221-419), Qiang were widely distributed along the mountainous fringes of the northern and eastern Tibetan Plateau, from the Kunlun Mountains (崑崙山) in Xinjiang province, and eastern Qinghai area, to southern Gansu, western Sichuan, and northern Yunnan. It was during this era that Qiang revolts along China's frontier borders led to a full scale invasion of China's interior by Qiang people. This was a significant factor in the eventual disintegration of the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Later imperial Chinese government restricted the term Qiang min 羌民 (Qiang people registered with the Chinese government) to refer to sinicized non-Han people living in the Min River valley in Sichuan and used the term Fan Qiang 番羌 (raw Qiang) to refer to less sinicized non-Han tribes living in the vicinity.

 

Chengdu (成都), located in southwest People's Republic of China, is the capital of Sichuan province and a sub-provincial city. Chengdu is also one of the most important economic centers, transportation and communication hubs in Southwestern China.

More than four thousand years ago, the prehistorical Bronze Age culture of Jinsha (金沙) established itself in this region. The fertile Chengdu Plain, on which Chengdu is located, is called Tianfuzhi guo (天府之国) in Chinese, which literally means "the country of heaven", or more often seen translated as "the Land of Abundance".

In the early 4th century BC, the 9th Kaiming king of the ancient Shu (蜀族) moved his capital to the city's current location from today's nearby Pixian. He was said to have been inspired by the ancient story of King Tai of Zhou, Grandfather of King Wu of Zhou, moving his capital. History recorded King Tai of Zhou's move as "it took a year to become a town; it took three years to become a capital". Following this, the king of Shu named the new city as "Cheng Du", which means "become a capital" (In Chinese, the word "cheng" means "become", "du" means "capital"). There are, however, several versions of why the capital was moved to Chengdu, and more recent theories of the name's origin point to it as stemming from, or referring to, earlier non-Han inhabitants and/or their languages.

After the conquest of Shu by the State of Qin in 316 BC, a new city was founded by the Qin general Zhang Yi (who as a matter of fact had argued against the invasion). This can be seen as the beginning of the Chinese Chengdu.

 

 

* Y-chromosomal Binary Haplogroups in the Japanese Population and Their Relationship to 16 Y-STR Polymorphisms

Frequencies of Haplogroup O3e*

Population Asahikawa Kanto Nagoya Western Japan Okinawa Korea Taiwan
%
4.4
2.9
3.9
5.2
2.3
14.7
7.1

 

 

* Paternal Genetic Structure of Hainan Aborigines Isolated at the Entrance to East Asia by Dongna Li, et al.

Y Chromosome Haplogroup Frequencies (O3a5*)

 

Abstract

Background: At the southern entrance to East Asia, early population migration has affected most of the Y-chromosome variations of East Asians.

Methodology/Principal Findings: To assess the isolated genetic structure of Hainan Island and the original genetic structure at the southern entrance, we studied the Y chromosome diversity of 405 Hainan Island aborigines from all the six populations, who have little influence of the recent mainland population relocations and admixtures. Here we report that haplogroups O1a* and O2a* are dominant among Hainan aborigines. In addition, the frequency of the mainland dominant haplogroup O3 is quite low among these aborigines, indicating that they have lived rather isolated. Clustering analyses suggests that the Hainan aborigines have been segregated since about 20 thousand years ago, after two dominant haplogroups entered East Asia (31 to 36 thousand years ago).

Conclusions/Significance: Our results suggest that Hainan aborigines have been isolated at the entrance to East Asia for about 20 thousand years, whose distinctive genetic characteristics could be used as important controls in many population genetic studies.

 

 

* The Himalayas as a Directional Barrier to Gene Flow by Tenzin Gayden, et al.

Abstract: High-resolution Y-chromosome haplogroup analyses coupled with Y–short tandem repeat (STR) haplotypes were used to (1) investigate the genetic affinities of three populations from Nepal—including Newar, Tamang, and people from cosmopolitan Kathmandu (referred to as “Kathmandu” subsequently)—as well as a collection from Tibet and (2) evaluate whether the Himalayan mountain range represents a geographic barrier for gene flow between the Tibetan plateau and the South Asian subcontinent. The results suggest that the Tibetans and Nepalese are in part descendants of Tibeto-Burman–speaking groups originating from Northeast Asia. All four populations are represented predominantly by haplogroup O3a5-M134–derived chromosomes, whose Y-STR–based age (±SE) was estimated at 8.1±2.9 thousand years ago (KYA), more recent than its Southeast Asian counterpart. The most pronounced difference between the two regions is reflected in the opposing high-frequency distributions of haplogroups D in Tibet and R in Nepal. With the exception of Tamang, both Newar and Kathmandu exhibit considerable similarities to the Indian Y-haplogroup distribution, particularly in their haplogroup R and H composition. These results indicate gene flow from the Indian subcontinent and, in the case of haplogroup R, from Eurasia as well, a conclusion that is also supported by the admixture analysis. In contrast, whereas haplogroup D is completely absent in Nepal, it accounts for 50.6% of the Tibetan Y-chromosome gene pool. Coalescent analyses suggest that the expansion of haplogroup D derivatives—namely, D1-M15 and D3-P47 in Tibet—involved two different demographic events (5.1±1.8 and 11.3±3.7 KYA, respectively) that are more recent than those of D2-M55 representatives common in Japan. Low frequencies, relative to Nepal, of haplogroup J and R lineages in Tibet are also consistent with restricted gene flow from the subcontinent. Yet the presence of haplogroup O3a5-M134 representatives in Nepal indicates that the Himalayas have been permeable to dispersals from the east. These genetic patterns suggest that this cordillera has been a biased bidirectional barrier.

Population Tamang Newar Kathmandu Tibet
O*        
O3*       0.6
O3a*    
1.3
 2.6
O3a5*
2.2
  
2.6
 1.9
O3a5a
84.4
21.2
16.9
 28.8

 

 

Map of Nepal

 

* Mitochondrial and Y-chromosome Diversity of the Tharus (Nepal): A reservoir of genetic variation by Simona Fornarino, et al.

Phylogeny and Frequencies (%) of Y-chromosome Haplogroups in the Populations Studied (partial tree)

 

Population Tharus-Chitwan I Tharus-Chitwan II Tharus-Eastern Terai Hindus-Terai Hindus- New Delhi Tribals-Andhra Pradesh
Number
57
77
37
26
49
29
O3a3c*
3.5
    
3.8
2.0
  

 

 

Map of Meghalaya, India, from Maps of India

 

* Y-chromosome Evidence Suggests a Common Paternal Heritage of Austro-Asiatic Populations by Vikrant Kumar, et al.

Excerpt: Further, the Garo tribe shows haplogroup O-M122 as most common (55%) followed by O-M95 (18%). Since Austro-Asiatic Khasi and Tibeto-Burman Garo live in close proximity in Meghalaya and are known to have frequent marital interactions, we further typed all the samples of haplogroup O-M122 from Garo and Khasi populations to see if O-M122 among the Khasis is not due to admixture with the Garo. We found only 3 out of the 8 haplogroups defined by the binary markers used in this study (Fig. 3) i.e. O-M133*, O-M134* and O-M122*. The frequency of O-M134* was highest in both Khasi (56%) and Garo (67%) followed by O-M133*. Three each of Khasi and Garo out of 27 and 18 O-M122 samples, respectively, remained in the undefined clade O-M122*. Thus the Khasi and Garo show homogeneous distribution of the sub-lineages of O-M122 (χ2 = 1.597; p = 0.45)....

Similarly, the presence of haplogroup O-M122 in the Austro-Asiatic Khasi with relatively high frequency (29%) could be suspected to be due to gene flow from the neighboring Garo, which is substantiated by a similar frequency and composition of subclades of O-M122 between them (χ2 = 1.597; p = 0.45). Concurrently, no separate Y-STR lineages could be identified in the M-J network within the subclades (Fig. S2 [see Additional file]). The comparative data suggests that Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatics near the Northeast border of India have either O-M133* or O-M134* subclades (63%), whereas majority of the Austro-Asiatic populations from geographically distant Southeast China and Cambodia have O-M159 subclade (65%), suggesting that the Austro-Asiatic populations of different regions have different subclades of O-M122, which are characteristic of the neighboring non-Austro-Asiatic groups, possibly due to extensive admixture. Therefore, the presence of O-M133* and/or O-M134* subclades in the Austro-Asiatic Khasi and other Tibeto-Burman populations including Garo from Northeast India may imply that the O-M122 in Khasi probably had its source in the neighboring Tibeto-Burman groups, particularly from the Garo.

 

Rooted maximum-parsimony tree of sub-haplogroups of O-M122 along with their frequencies in Khasi and Garo samples

 

 

Khasi

The Khasi are a tribe in Meghalaya, formerly part of Assam in north-eastern India and in parts of Bangladesh, who call themselves Ki Hynniew trep which means "the seven huts" in the Khasi language. Their language, also called Khasi, was essentially oral until the arrival of European missionaries, and particularly significant in this regard was the Welsh missionry Thomas Jones, who transcribed the Khasi language into the Roman Script. The Khasi people form the majority of the population of the eastern part of Meghalaya. Some Khasi reside in the hilly areas of Sylhet, Bangladesh. The Khasi tribes are usually dependent upon jhoom cultivation in which the vegetation is left to grow totally under the care of nature. In Bangladesh, one of the main products produced by the Khasi using jhoom cultivation is betel leaf.

Khasi from different regions have small, but noted differences. They are descendants of Mon-Khmer speakers who migrated probably from Mongolia to Meghalaya. Most Khasi have brown to light yellow skin, epicanthic folds, high nasal bridges and aquiline noses.

 

 

Garos

The Garos are a tribe in Meghalaya, India and neighboring areas of Bangladesh, who call themselves A·chik Mande (literally "hill people," from a·chik "hill" + mande "people") or simply A·chik or Mande. They are the second-largest tribe in Meghalaya after the Khasi and comprise about a third of the local population.

The Garo language belongs to the Bodo branch of the Bodo-Naga-Kachin family of the Sino-Tibetan phylum. As the Garo language is not traditionally written down, customs, traditions, and beliefs are handed down orally. It is also believed that the written language was lost in its transit to the present Garo Hills.

According to one such oral tradition, the Garos first came to Meghalaya from Tibet about 400 years ago under the leadership of Jappa Jalimpa, crossing the Brahmaputra River and tentatively settling in the river valley. It is said that they were later driven up into the hills by other groups in and around the Brahmaputra River. Various records of the tribe by invading Mughal armies and by British observers in what is now Bangladesh wrote of the brutality of the people.

The earliest written records about the Garo dates from around 1800. They "...were looked upon as bloodthirsty savages, who inhabited a tract of hills covered with almost impenetrable jungle, the climate of which was considered so deadly as to make it impossible for a white man to live there" (Playfair 1909: 76-77). The Garo had the reputation of being headhunters.

 

 

* Austro-Asiatic Tribes of Northeast India Provide Hitherto Missing Genetic Link between South and Southeast Asia by B. Mohan Reddy, et al.

Rooted Maximum-parsimony Tree of Y-chromosome Haplogroups Defined by Binary Markers along with Their Frequency in Nine Meghalayan Populations

 

Y-haplogroup Frequencies in Different Linguistic Populations of South and Southeast Asia

Haplogroup Austro-Asiatic (Khasi-Khumic) Austro-Asiatic (Mundari) Nicobarese (Mon-Khmer) Austro-Asiatic (Southeast Asia) Garo (Tibeto-Burman) Tibeto-Burman (India) Tibeto-Burman (East Asia) Indo-European (Eastern India)
O-M134*
12.2
0.0
0.0
10.1
42.3
79.2
24.3
0.0

 

Excerpt: Haplogroup O-M122 is found to be in high frequency in the Garo as well as in Khasi-Khmuic populations. However, further typing of O-M122 chromosomes suggests a high frequency of undifferentiated O-M122 among the Khasi-Khmic populations, whereas the frequency of O-M134 (one of the subhaplogroups of O-M122) is found to be much higher among the Garo. Incidentally, O-M134 is found to be in much higher frequency compared to the undifferentiated O-M122 in the other Indian Tibeto-Burman populations as well. Further, Tibeto-Burman populations of Southeast Asia also have relatively much higher frequency O-M134 compared to the Austro-Asiatics there whose undifferentiated O-M122 samples fall mostly into subhaplogroup O-M159 (Table 5). The presence of O-M134 in high frequency among the Tibeto-Burman populations, both from India and East/southeast Asia, strongly suggests possibility of its correlation with the migration and spread of Tibeto-Burman populations into India.

 

 

* The Northeast Indian Passageway: A barrier or corridor for human migrations? by Richard Cordaux, et al.

Map of India and East/Southeast Asia that indicates the frequency distribution of Y-haplogroup O-M134 (in black)

 

 

* Natives or Immigrants: Modern human origin in east Asia by Li Jin and Bing Su

 

The Distribution of the Seven East Asian-specific Y-chromosome Haplotypes

(Buryat, Manchurian, Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Northern Han, Hui, Sala, Tu, Tibetan, Baric, Lahu, Yi, Yao, Tujia, Southern Han, She, Taiwanese Aborigine, Dong, Zhuang, Dai, Thai, Li, Cambodian, Malaysian, Indonesian, Micronesian, Polynesian)

Northern populations are indicated in red text and southern populations in black text. The Yangtze River divides the northern and southern populations.
Mainland Southeast Asia is probably the first settlement of modern humans from Africa, as reflected by the presence of almost all seven haplotypes in Thai and Cambodian populations.

 

 

* The Origin of Mosuo People as Revealed by mtDNA and Y Chromosome Variation by Bo Wen, et al.

(Bai, Yi, Mosuo, Naxi, Pumi, Tibetan-YN)

 

 

* Y-Chromosome Evidence for a Northward Migration of Modern Humans into Eastern Asia during the Last Ice Age by Bing Su, et al.

Summary: The timing and nature of the arrival and the subsequent expansion of modern humans into eastern Asia remains controversial. Using Y-chromosome biallelic markers, we investigated the ancient human-migration patterns in eastern Asia. Our data indicate that southern populations in eastern Asia are much more polymorphic than northern populations, which have only a subset of the southern haplotypes. This pattern indicates that the first settlement of modern humans in eastern Asia occurred in mainland Southeast Asia during the last Ice Age, coinciding with the absence of human fossils in eastern Asia, 50,000–100,000 years ago. After the initial peopling, a great northward migration extended into northern China and Siberia.

 

Y-Chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Eastern-Asian

Northern

Population Buryat Ewenki Manchurian Mongolian Korean Japanese Hui Tibetan Northern Han
M134
  
25
16.7
4.2
42.9
10.3
20
50
23.2

 

Southern

Population Southern Han Jingpo Tujia Yao Zhuang Dong Bulang Lahu Yi She Atayal Yami Paiwan Ami
M134
27.9
100
    
25
20
    
7.1
18.2
4.2
  
18.2
  

 

 

 

Li Cambodian Northeastern Thai Malaysian Batak Javanese
9.1
15.4
  
15.4
    

 

 

The Jingpo or Kachin people (景頗族) are an ethnic group who largely inhabit northern Burma (Kachin State). They also form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, where they numbered 132,143 people in the 2000 census. There is a closely related people in India called Singpho.

The people classified as the Jingpo or Kachin in the broader sense speak at least nine different languages, Jingpo proper, Zaiwa, Maru, Lashi, Azi, Achang (or Maingtha), Hpon, Nung, and Lisu.

Their ancestors lived in the Tibetan plateau and they migrated gradually toward the south. To their arrival to the present province of Yunnan they received the name of Xunchuanman. It is possible that they might be related to the Qiang.

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries they continued migrating to being established in their present territory. They have received diverse names along the centuries: Echang, Zhexie, and Yeren, the latter name which was used in China from the Yuan dynasty to the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

The Kachin people are an ethnic affinity of several tribal groups, known for their fierce independence, disciplined fighting skills, complex clan inter-relations, embrace of Christianity, craftsmanship, herbal healing and jungle survival skills.

 

 

* Paternal Population History of East Asia: Sources, Patterns, and Microevolutionary Processes by Tatiana Karafet, et al.

Haplogroup 30 (M134) Frequencies and Population Diversities for 25 Asian Populations, Grouped by Geography and Language

Northern East Asia (NEAS)

Population Northern Han Hui Tibetans Manchu Chinese Evenks Oroqen Uygurs Mongolians Siberian Evenks
Language Family
Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan
Altaic
Altaic
Altaic
Altaic
Altaic
Altaic
N
44
54
75
52
41
23
68
147
95
M134
18
10
24
8
6
  
4
23
  
%
40.9
18.5
32
15.4
14.6
  
5.9
15.7
  

 

 

 

 

 

Population Buryats Koreans
Language Family
Altaic
Isolate/Altaic
N
81
74
M134  
13
%  
17.6

 

Southern East Asia (SEAS)

Population Yizu Tujians Southern Han Taiwanese Han Zhuang She Miao Yao Vietnamese Malaysian
Language Family
Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan
Austro-Asiatic
Austro-Asiatic
Austro-Asiatic
Austro-Asiatic
Austro-Asiatic
Austronesian
N
43
49
40
82
19
51
57
60
70
32
M134
12
11
9
20
3
3
6
3
11
3
%
27.9
22.5
22.5
24.4
15.8
5.9
10.5
5
15.7
9.4

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cental Asia

Population Kazakhs Altai Uzbeks Kirghiz
Language Family
Altaic
Altaic
Altaic
Altaic
N
30
29
54
13
M134
3
  
1
  
%
10
  
1.9
  

 

Population NEAS SEAS CAS
Language Family      
N
754
503
126
M134
106
81
4
%
14.1
16.1
3.2

 

 

Markers in Karafet's Nomenclature System from A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human
Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

Name Derived state at Ancestral state at Name by lineage
28 M175 M119, P31, M122 O*
29 M122 LINE-1, M134 O3*(xO3c,O3e)
30 M134   O3e
31 LINE-1   O3c
32 M119, MSY2b   O1
33 P31 M95, SRY+465 O2*
34 M95   O2a
35 SRY+465 47z O2b*
36 47z   O2b1

 

 

* Partial Duplication at AZFc on the Y Chromosome Is a Risk Factor for Impaired Spermatogenesis in Han Chinese in Taiwan by Yi-Wen Lin, et al.

The Y Chromosome Haplogroups of Han Taiwanese

 

 

* Y Chromosome Haplotypes Reveal Prehistorical Migrations to the Himalayas by Bing Su, et al.

 

Y Chromosome M134 Haplotype Frequency Distribution in 31 Sino-Tibetan Populations

Population Shandong Han Henan Han Northern Han Anhui Han Zhejiang Han Jiangsu Han Shanghai Han Hubei Han Sichuan Han Jiangxi Han
M134
28.1
14.3
27.3
18.2
26.0
21.8
16.7
33.3
35.7
23.8
Language
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese

 

Hunan Han Fujian Han Yunnan Han Guangxi Han Guangdong Han Kachari Jingpo Rabha Naga Adi Nishi Apatani
26.7
38.5
55.6
  
26.7
85.0
100
76.5
66.7
100
88.9
80.0
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Chinese
Tibeto-Burman, Baric
Tibeto-Burman, Baric
Tibeto-Burman, Baric
Tibeto-Burman, Baric
Tibeto-Burman, Baric
Tibeto-Burman, Baric

 

 

 

 

 

Tibetan-Lhasa Tibetan-Yunnan Tujia Jino Lahu-Yunnan Yi Bai Naxi Karen
34.8
29.6
  
22.2
15.4
7.1
30.8
  
52.6
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by B. Wen, et al.

NRY Haplogroup O3e (M134) Distribution in Han Populations

Northern Han

Population Gansu Hebei Henan Liaoning Neimeng Shandong1 Shandong2 Shannxi1 Shannxi2 Xinjiang
n
60
14
50
48
60
85
100
63
27
51
M134
11
7
10
9
16
12
30
22
8
15
%
18.3
50
20
18.8
26.7
14.1
30
34.9
29.6
29.4

 

 

 

 

Southern Han

Population Anhui Fujian Guangdong Guangxi Hubei Hunan Jiangsu Jiangxi Shanghai Sichuan
n
22
148
64
26
18
15
100
21
55
63
M134
4
24
19
5
6
4
19
5
9
18
%
18.2
16.2
29.7
19.2
33.3
26.7
19
23.8
16.4
28.6

 

 

* Y-chromosome Haplotype Distribution in Han Chinese Populations and Modern Human Origin in East Asians
by KE Yuehai, et al.

The Frequency Distribution of Y Chromosome Haplotype H8 (M134) in Han Chinese Populations and Other Populations

Northeast Asia

Population Buryat Ewenki Manchurian Mongolian Tibetan
Size
4
8
18
24
8
H8 (M134)  
25.0
16.7
4.2
50.0

 

Northern Han

Population Liaoning Hebei Shangdong Henan Others
Size
6
6
32
28
10
H8 (M134)  
33.3
28.1
14.3
40.0

 

Southern Han

Population Anhui Zhejiang Jiangsu Shanghai Hubei Sichuan Jiangxi Hunan Fujian Yunnan Guangdong
Size
22
50
55
30
18
14
21
15
13
27
15
H8 (M134)
18.2
26.0
21.8
16.7
33.3
35.7
23.8
26.7
38.5
55.6
26.7

 

 

 

 

Southeast Asia

Population Zhuang Cambodian Thailand Malayan Batak Javan
Size
28
26
20
13
18
11
H8 (M134)
25.0
15.4
  
15.4
    

 

Other Continents

Population African American Indian European Oceanian
Size
24
26
39
93
H8 (M134)        

 

 

Markers in Su's Nomenclature System from A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human
Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

Name Derived state at Ancestral state at Name by lineage
H6 M122 M7, M134 O3*(xO3d, O3e)
H7 M7   O3d
H8 M134   O3e
H9 M119 M50 O1*(xO1b)
H10 M50   O1b
H11 M95 M88 O2a*
H12 M88   O2a1

 

 

* Dual Origins of the Japanese: Common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes by Michael F. Hammer, et al.

Population Japan NEA SEA CAS SAS OCE
M134
10.4
10.7
12.4
15.5
0.2
1.4

Abstract: Our data also support the hypothesis that other Y haplogroups, such as lineages within haplogroup
O-M122 (i.e., O-M134 and O-LINE), as well as the O-M95 lineage within O-P31, entered Japan with the Yayoi expansion (Fig. 5). High frequencies of these lineages in southwestern Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asian populations likely explain the affinity of these populations in the MDS plot (Fig. 3). The entire O haplogroup has been proposed to have a Southeast Asian origin (Su et al. 1999; Kayser et al. 2000; Capelli et al. 2001; Karafet et al. 2001). In fact, nearly all lineages within the O-M175 clade in Fig. 2, except O-SRY465 and O-47z, are present at their highest frequencies (e.g., O-M95, O-P31*, M122*, O-LINE, O-M119) in southeastern Asia/Oceania (Fig. 2), and have been proposed to have southern Chinese origins (Santos et al. 2000; Su et al. 2000; Karafet et al. 2005). Their expansion into surrounding regions likely accompanied the proliferation of Neolithic culture and rice cultivation. We hypothesize that the dispersals of Neolithic farmers from Southeast Asia also brought haplogroup O lineages to Korea and eventually to Japan.

 

 

* Polynesian Origins: Insights from the Y chromosome by Bing Su, et al.

Southeast Asia

Population Tujia Yao Dong Yi She Li Zhuang North Thai Northeast Thai
N
10
20
10
14
11
11
28
20
20
H8 (M134)    
20
7.1
18.2
9.1
25
30
  

 

Population So (Southern Thai) Cambodian Orang Asli Malay Batak Javanese Kota Kinabalu
N
5
26
17
27
18
11
19
H8 (M134)
40
15.4
  
22.2
      

 

Taiwan

Population Bunun Atayal Yami Paiwan Ami
N
9
24
8
11
6
H8 (M134)  
4.2
  
18.2
  

 

Melanesia

Population New Guinea
N
90
H8 (M134)  

 

Micronesia

Population Truk Majuro Kiribati Guam Palau Phonpei Nauru
N
17
9
11
6
13
10
7
H8 (M134)
5.8
  
9.1
        

 

Polynesia

Population Kapingamarangi Tonga Samoan
N
10
1
29
H8 (M134)      

 

 

* Paternal Genetic Affinity between Western Austronesians and Daic Populations by Hui Li, et al.

Y-SNP Haplogroup O3a5 Frequencies of the Newly Studied Samples (%)

Population Bolyu Yerong Qau Blue Gelao Lachi Mollao Red Gelao White Gelao Hlai-Qi Jiamao Buyang Cun Laqua
Size
30
16
13
30
30
30
31
14
34
27
32
31
25
O3a5
6.7
12.5
  
3.3
6.7
    
7.1
        
4.0

 

 

 

 

Population Man-Caolan Zhuang-N Zhuang-S Lingao E Laka Kam/Dong Sui Mak&AiCham Mulam Maonan
Size
30
22
15
30
31
23
38
50
40
40
32
O3a5
3.3
    
10.0
3.2
  
2.6
20
2.5
5.0
  

 

 

 

 

Population Biao Then Danga DornQdayc-S DornQdayc-N CaoMiao Amis Pazeh Makatao (Siraya) Thao Paiwan
Size
34
30
40
74
51
33
28
21
37
22
22
O3a5    
2.5
27.1
11.8
12.1
3.6
  
13.5
  
9.1

 

 

 

 

Population Atayal Rukai Pyuma Tsou Bunun Saisiyat Batak Bangka Malay Minangkabau Palembang
Size
22
11
11
18
17
11
13
13
13
15
11
O3a5                      

 

 

 

Population Nias Dayak Banjar Javanese Tengger Balinese Bugis Torajan Minahasa Makassar Kaili
Size
12
15
15
15
12
14
15
15
14
13
15
O3a5                      

 

 

 

Population Sasak Sumbawa Sumba Alor Irian Cham Tsat
Size
15
18
14
13
11
11
31
O3a5            
6.5

 

 

The Sui people (水族) are an ethnic group living in the Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan areas of southwestern China. They are counted as one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

It is believed that the Shui are descended from the Luo-Yue that inhabited the southeast coast of China before the Han dynasty. Their name of Shui, which means "water", was adopted during the Ming dynasty.

The Shui speak the Sui language of the Kradai family.

 

Makatao and Taivoa were dialects of the Siraya language. Siraya is a Formosan language spoken until the end of the 19th century by the indigenous Siraya people (西拉雅族) of Taiwan.

The Siraya are an indigenous people of Taiwan. The Siraya settled flat coastal plains in the southwest part of the island and corresponding sections of the east coast; the area is identified today with Tainan City, Tainan County and Taidong County. At least five subtribes make up the group: Mattauw, Soelangh, Baccloangh, Sinckan, and Taivoan.

The Siraya are one of Taiwan's Pingpu peoples--that is, occupants of flat coastal regions rather than mountain areas. Like other indigenous peoples of Taiwan they are ethnically and linguistically Austronesian. The name "Taiwan" (historically 大灣 / 台員 / 大員 / 台圓 / 大圓 / 台窩灣) originated from the Siraya language. The Austronesian language family to which Sirayan belongs includes most of the languages spoken in the western Pacific, including Polynesian, Indonesian, Filipino and Malaysian.

After the port in the Siraya area of Taiwan was annexed in 1683 by Qing Dynasty China, a process of gradual acculturation led to the Siraya language falling out of use. Its last recorded regular use was in 1908, after Taiwan was under Japanese rule.

 

The Paiwan (排灣族) are an aboriginal tribe of Taiwan. They speak the Paiwan language (Austronesian). In the year 2000 the Paiwan numbered 70,331. This was approximately 17.7% of Taiwan's total indigenous population, making them the third-largest tribal group.

The unique ceremonies in Paiwan are Masaru and Maleveq. The Masaru is a ceremony that celebrates the harvest of rice, whereas the Maleveq commemorates their ancestors or gods.

One of the most important figures in Paiwan history was supreme chief Toketok (卓其督; ca. 1817 - 1874), who united 18 tribes of Paiwan under his rule, and in 1867 concluded a formal agreement with Chinese and Western leaders to ensure the safety of foreign ships landing on their coastal territories in return for amnesty for Paiwan tribesmen who had killed the crew of the barque Rover in March 1867.

In 1871, an Okinawan vessel shipwrecked on the southern tip of Taiwan, and the crew of fifty-four were beheaded by the Paiwan aborigines. When Japan sought compensation from Qing China, the court rejected the demand on the grounds that the "wild"/"unsubjugated" aboriginals (台灣生番) were outside its jurisdiction. This perceived renunciation of sovereignty led to the Taiwan Expedition of 1874 by the Japanese.

 

Tsat (also known as Utsat, Utset, Huihui, Hui, or Hainan Cham, 回輝語) is a language spoken on Hainan Island in China by the Utsuls. Tsat is a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within the Austronesian language family, and is related to the Cham languages, originally from the coast of present-day Vietnam.

The Utsuls are a tiny ethnic group which lives on the Chinese island of Hainan and are considered one of the People's Republic of China's undistinguished ethnic groups. They are found on the southernmost tip of Hainan near the city of Sanya. According to the traditions of the Utsuls, their ancestors were Muslims who migrated southward out of Central Asia into their present day location. However, they are thought to be descendants of Cham refugees who fled their homeland in what is now southern Vietnam to escape from Vietnamese invasion.

While most of the Chams who fled Champa went to neighbouring Cambodia, a small business class fled northwards. How they came to acquire the name Utsul is unknown.

 

Lingao County (臨高縣) is an administrative district in Hainan, the People's Republic of China. It is one of 4 counties of Hainan. Its postal code is 571800, and in 1999 its population was 399,057 people.

 

The Kradai or Kra-Dai languages, also known as Daic, Kadai, or Tai-Kadai, are a language family of highly tonal languages found in southern China and Southeast Asia. The diversity of the Kradai languages in southeastern China, especially on Hainan, suggests that this is close to their homeland. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only in historic times, founding the nations that later became Thailand and Laos in what had been Austroasiatic territory.

The Kradai languages were formerly considered to be part of the Sino-Tibetan family, but outside of China they are now classified as an independent family. They contain large numbers of cognates with Sino-Tibetan languages. However, these are seldom found in all branches of the family, and do not include basic vocabulary, indicating that they are old loan words (Ostapirat 2005).

In China, they are called Zhuang-Dong languages and are generally considered Sino-Tibetan along with the Miao-Yao languages. It is still a matter of discussion among Chinese scholars whether Kra languages such as Gelao, Qabiao, and Lachi can be included in Zhuang-Dong, since they lack the Sino-Tibetan cognates that are used to include other Zhuang-Dong languages in Sino-Tibetan.

Several Western scholars believe that Kradai is related to or a branch of the Austronesian language family, in a family called Austro-Tai. There is a substantial but limited number of cognates in the core vocabulary. There is yet no agreement as to whether they are a sister group to Austronesian languages which remained on the mainland, a backmigration from Taiwan to the mainland, or a later migration from the Philippines to Hainan during the Austronesian expansion.

The study of over 100 East Asian populations including 30 Kradai-speaking peoples had reached the following conclusions. First, the Kradai-speaking populations show a great deal of genetic similarity although admixture with local populations did occur after its expansion.

Secondly, a significant proportion of southern Chinese populations carry a signature of Kradai-speaking populations.

Thirdly, Taiwanese aborigines are more similar to Kradai-speaking populations than they are to the other Austronesian populations, that is, the Malayo-Polynesians.

Fourthly, the clustering of subfamilies of Kradai-speaking populations correlates well with that based on their genetic similarity indicating limited gene flow between them after their separation.

Kradai-speaking populations originated in the southern part of East Asia and then migrated northwards and eastwards with Kam-Sui probably being the oldest.

 

 

* Balinese Y-Chromosome Perspective on the Peopling of Indonesia: Genetic Contributions from Pre-Neolithic Hunter-Gatherers, Austronesian Farmers, and Indian Traders by Tatiana M. Karafet, et al.

Frequencies of Y-Chromosome M134 Lineage in Bali and 19 Additional Population Samples

Southeast Asians

Population Balinese West Indonesians East Indonesians Taiwanese Aboriginals Philippinos Vietnamese Malaysians
N
551
21
55
48
48
70
32
M134
1
2
    
2
11
3
%
0.2
9.5
    
4.2
15.7
9.4

 

Southern Chinese

Population Han Miao She Tujians Yao
N
166
58
51
49
60
M134
47
6
3
11
3
%
28.3
10.3
5.9
22.4
5

 

Oceanians

Population Melanesians Papua New Guineans Micronesians Polynesians
N
53
46
16
60
M134      
3
%      
5

 

South Asians

Population Indians Sri Lankans
N
405
91
M134
1
  
%
0.3
  

 

Near Easterners

Population Saudi Arabians Syrians
N
22
87
M134    
%    

 

 

* Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists by Sanghamitra Sengupta, et al.

Y-Chromosome HG O3e Frequencies in India, Pakistan, and East Asia

Population India Pakistan East Asia
n
728
176
175
O3e-M134
58
1
27
%
7.97
0.57
15.43

Excerpt: It is noteworthy that no C3-M217–derived lineages typical of East and Central Asia have been observed in the Indian samples reported thus far (Redd et al. 2002; Kivisild et al. 2003a; the present study). Conversely, HGs of likely exogenous origin include J2a-M410 and J2b-M12 in the Indus Valley, whereas HGs O2a-M95 and O3e-M134 have their most likely origin in Southeast Asia, judging from the fact that the HG O lineages observed in India represent a minor subset of East Asian variation (Su et al. 1999). Interestingly, within India, R1a1-M17, R2-M124, and L1-M76 display considerable frequency and HG-associated microsatellite variance (table 9). The widespread geographic distribution of HG R1a1-M17 across Eurasia and the current absence of informative subdivisions defined by binary markers leave uncertain the geographic origin of HG R1a1-M17. However, the contour map of R1a1-M17 variance shows the highest variance in the northwestern region of India (fig. 4).

 

 

* The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from maternal and paternal lineages by ME Hurles, et al.

Abstract: Linguistic and archaeological evidence about the origins of the Malagasy, the indigenous peoples of Madagascar, points to mixed African and Indonesian ancestry. By contrast, genetic evidence about the origins of the Malagasy has hitherto remained partial and imprecise. We defined 26 Y-chromosomal lineages by typing 44 Y-chromosomal polymorphisms in 362 males from four different ethnic groups from Madagascar and 10 potential ancestral populations in Island Southeast Asia and the Pacific. We also compared mitochondrial sequence diversity in the Malagasy with a manually curated database of 19,371 hypervariable segment I sequences, incorporating both published and unpublished data. We could attribute every maternal and paternal lineage found in the Malagasy to a likely geographic origin. Here, we demonstrate approximately equal African and Indonesian contributions to both paternal and maternal Malagasy lineages. The most likely origin of the Asia-derived paternal lineages found in the Malagasy is Borneo. This agrees strikingly with the linguistic evidence that the languages spoken around the Barito River in southern Borneo are the closest extant relatives of Malagasy languages. As a result of their equally balanced admixed ancestry, the Malagasy may represent an ideal population in which to identify loci underlying complex traits of both anthropological and medical interest.

 

Y-chromosomal Haplogroup M134 (O3e) Frequencies in the Malagasy and in Potential Ancestral Populations

S.E. Asian + Oceanic

Population Banjarmasin Cook Islands Kapingamarangi Kota Kinabalu (Sabah, Borneo) Majuro Philippines
Total
22
20
21
65
11
28
M134      
3
  
3
%      
4.6
  
10.7

 

Population Papua New Guinea Taiwan (aborigines) Vanuatu Western Samoa
Total
44
39
52
25
M134  
2
    
%  
5.1
    

 

E. Africa

Population Wiarak (Tanzania) Bantu (Kenya) Malagasy
Total
43
29
35
M134      
%      

 

___________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup: D5a (Analysis by Transfusion Medicine and Anthropology Research Laboratory, Mackay Memorial Hospital)

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

mtDNA: D5a

162 164 172 182 183 189 223 362

 

Haplogroup D (mtDNA)

Haplogroup D is believed to have arisen in Asia some 60,000 years before present. It is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup M.

In his popular book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mtDNA haplogroup Djigonasee.

Djigonasee: A heroine of the Ontario Hurons, Djigonasee was the mother of the peacebringer Deganiwada, founder of the Six Nations: Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and Tuscarora. Like many mothers of heroes, Djigonasee was a virgin when her son was born. A herald from beyond this world announced the birth (by Dr Anthony E. Smart).

It is found in Northeast Asia (including Siberia) and is also one of five haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the others being A, B, C, and X.

Haplogroup D is also found quite frequently in Central Asia, where it makes up the second most common mtDNA clade (after H). Haplogroup D also appears at a low frequency in northeastern Europe and southwestern Asia.

 

 

Map of Central Asia: Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal

 

* Haplogroup D by the Genographic Project

Excerpt: Haplogroup D likely arising on the high plains of Central Asia between the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal. It is considered a characteristic east Eurasian lineage, and today is the predominant haplogroup in East Asia, accounting for around 20 percent of the entire mitochondrial gene pool there.

Radiating out from the Central Asian homeland, haplogroup D-bearing individuals began migrating into the surrounding areas and quickly headed south, making their way throughout East Asia. It exhibits somewhat of a north to south gradient: in northern Asia. D is present in over 20 percent of the population, and is found at around 17 percent in Southeast Asia. Because of its old age and high frequency throughout east Eurasia, it is widely accepted that this lineage was carried by the first humans to settle the region.

Haplogroup D has a gradual reduction in frequency moving west across Eursasia. It is found in 10 to 20 percent of Central Asians, with several of the lineages there matching exactly with sequences found in the East, representing a much more recent mixture. these lineages were likley introduced within the last 5,000 years, possibly during the ancient Silk Road trading thoroughfare that connected the entire Eurasian continent.

 

 

* mtDNA Haplogroup Specific Control Region Mutation Motifs by mtDNAmanager

D5a1: 16182C-16183C-16189-16223-16362

D5a2: 16182Y-16183C-16189-16223-16266-16362

 

 

* mtDNA Subtree D by PhyloTree.org

                     
     16189                    
                       
   

D5

  150  1107  5301  10397                
                       
     
D5a'b
  9180                
                       
       

D5a

  752  11944  12026            
                       
         
D5a1
  68  309d  3496T  13708  16390        
                       
           
D5a1a
  6185          
                       
             
D5a1a1
  14371        
                       
         
D5a2
  1438  16092  16172  16266        
                       
           
D5a2a
  16164          
                       
                 16172        
                         
               
D5a2a1
  44.1C  1310  13278    
                       
                 
D5a2a1a
  16102    
                       
                 
D5a2a1b
  8071    
                       
           
D5a2c
  8479          
                       
         
D5a3
  3702  8838  13759  16126  16136  16360      
                       

 

 

* The Origins of Southern and Western Eurasian Populations: An mtDNA study by Toomas Kivisild

Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups in Asian Populations

 

mtDNA Haplogroup Frequencies in Asian and Amerindian Populations

 

Excerpt: The geographic spread of haplogroup A (+663 HaeIII; HVS-I motif 16223-16290-16319-16362) is similar (Wallace 1995; Wallace et al. 1999) to that of haplogroups C and D: all of them are more frequent in northern Asians and rare or even absent in southeastern Asians. Haplogroup A is the most frequent mtDNA group among Chukchis and Eskimos (Schurr et al. 1999; Starikovskaya et al. 1998). In Native Americans haplogroup A frequency is also the highest in north among the Na-Dene speakers. It has been suggested that an expansion of a subset A2 in these populations occurred after Younger Dryas glacial relapse (Forster et al. 1996).

Haplogroup D (-5176 AluI; HVS-I motif 16223-16362) reveals also a strong south to north frequency difference in eastern Asians. Similarly to haplogroup C it is widely spread and frequent in Central Asian populations and native Siberians but sampled only in low frequencies in southeastern Asians (Table 1). More than one third of the maternal lineages of Nganasans and Yukaghirs (Torroni et al. 1993b) belong to haplogroup D. Among Native Americans, haplogroup D is most frequent in Southern American native populations (Table 1).

 

 

* Different Matrilineal Contributions to Genetic Structure of Ethnic Groups in the Silk Road Region in China by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

The Haplogroup D Distribution Frequencies (%)
Haplogroup
 Hui
Mg
Kaz
Uzb
Uyg
Han a
UIGb
KITb
KIRb
KAZb
IM-Mg c
Central Asian d
n 45 49 53 58 47 47 55 48 47 55 48 232
D* 13.3 18.4 13.2 19.0 6.4 19.1 16.4 14.6 25.5 16.4 33.3 13.4
D5* 2.0 3.4 2.1 2.1 1.8 4.2 0.4
D5a 2.2 2.1 4.3 2.1
NOTE.—The populations Uygur, Uzbek, Kazak, Mongolian, and Hui are abbreviated as Uyg, Uzb, Kaz, Mg, and Hui, respectively.
a Data from Yao et al. (2002a).
b Data from Comas et al. (1998). Kazakh, Uighur, Kirghiz (Sary-Tash), and Kirghiz (Talas) are abbreviated as KAZ, UIG, KIR, KIT, respectively.
c Mongolian from Inner Mongolia, data from Kong et al. (2003a).
d Aggregated samples reported by Comas et al. (2004).

 

Schematic Profile of the mtDNA Haplogroup D in 252 Samples from Xinjiang, China

 

 

* Mitochondrial Genome Variation in Eastern Asia and the Peopling of Japan by Masashi Tanaka, et al.

Excerpt: Haplogroup D has been defined by the specific RFLP -5176 AluI (Torroni et al. 1992). Studies on Native American HVI sequences permitted further subdivision of D into subgroups D1 by mutation 16325 and D2 by mutation 16271 (Forster et al. 1996). Additional subdivisions into subhaplogroups D4 and D5 have been proposed for Asian lineages (Yao et al. 2002). These investigators characterized D4 by position 3010. Two additional mutations, 8414 and 14668, have been proposed to define D4 (Kivisild et al. 2002). Whereas these two latter mutations seem to be rare events, 3010 has also been independently detected in haplogroups H and J. A new branch at the same phylogenetic level as D4 and D5 has been detected in Japan . It is characterized by mutations 709, 1719, 3714, and 12654 and was named D6. The subdivision of D4 into subgroups D4a and D4b was proposed on the basis of the distinctive mutational motif 152, 3206, 14979, and 16129 for the first and 10181 and 16319 for the second (Kivisild et al. 2002). Both subclades have been detected in our Japanese sample. From our data it can be deduced that mutation 8473 is also basal for D4a. In relation to D4b it seems that its ancestral branch is defined by the 8020 substitution. Consequently, the D4b subgroup proposed by Yao et al. (2002) should be renamed D4b1 harboring 15440 and 15951 as additional basic mutations. A new subgroup characterized by 1382C, 8964, and 9824A mutations and named D4b2, is represented by lineages GC20 and KA83 in Figure 1B. Furthermore, 12 new branches at the same phylogenetic level as subhaplogroups D4a and D4b can be identified in the network. Accordingly, they have been successively named from D4c to D4n. On the other hand, D5 was defined by mutations 150, 10397, and 16189 (Yao et al. 2002); however, 16189 is not present in all D5 lineages. We have named D5a and D5b those lineages that share this mutation and 9180 and D5c those lacking them. Consequently, we propose to rename D5a of Yao et al. (2002) as D5a1. Additional mutations (1107 and 5301) define D5, as has been recently confirmed (Kong et al. 2003). Of the four mutations at the basal branch of this group, 10397 seems to be a unique event; and the group can be diagnosed by the RFLP polymorphism +10396 BsrI. Recently, the phylogeny of haplogroup D has been revised in the light of complete sequences from Aleuts (Derbeneva et al. 2002b). By comparing their nomenclature to ours, it is possible to equate their D2 lineage to our D4e1 and their D3 lineage to our D4b1. As a total, D is the most abundant haplogroup in people of central and eastern Asia including mainland Japanese but not in the Ainu and Ryukyuans. However, the geographic distributions of some subhaplogroups are peculiar. For example, D5 is prevalent in southern areas. D4a is abundant in Chukchi of northeast Siberia, but D4a1 has its highest frequency in the Ryukyuans and clade D4n in the Ainu.

Phylogenetic Tree, Based on Complete mtDNA Sequences for Haplogroup D

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Control Region Sequences in Koreans: Identification of useful variable sites and phylogenetic analysis for mtDNA data quality control by Hwan Young Lee, et al.

Excerpt: In addition, the sequence 16093C–16188.1C–16193.1C–16362C–16390A–146C–150T–152C

–182T–217C, which was reported to be found in some Japanese individuals in haplogroup D5, was observed in one Korean individual, and was assigned to haplogroup D5, as described by Maruyama et al. . Also, in reference to Kong et al., G4a in Maruyama et al. corresponds to G1a in the present study. The distribution pattern of Korean mtDNA haplogroup frequencies generally parallels to that of the Japanese, but showed slight differences versus that of the Chinese. The D4* haplogroup occurred at highest frequency in Koreans (15.7% in this study, 16.5% according to Allard et al., and 31.9% by Maruyama et al.) and in Japanese (19.6% Allard et al. and 35.5% Maruyama et al.), and was also common in Chinese (6.2% Allard et al. and 14.2% Maruyama et al.). However, the G haplogroup and its sub-haplogroups were observed in relatively high frequencies in Koreans (8.6% in the present study and 5.2% by Maruyama et al.) and Japanese populations (10.4% Maruyama et al.), but occurred sparsely in the Chinese (4% Allard et al. and 3.4% Maruyama et al.).

 

 

* Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

Estimated Frequencies (%) of mtDNA Haplogroups in Regional Han Populations

mtDNA Haplogroup
 Yunnan Wuhan Qingdao Liaoning Xinjiang Guangdong, Zhanjiang Guangdong, Guangzhou
D*
          
3.3
1.4
D4a
    
8.0
3.9
2.1
3.3
  
D4b
2.3
        
3.3
  
D4*
7.0
4.8
18.0
13.7
17.0
  
7.2
D4k
9.3
4.8
26.0
17.6
19.1
10.0
8.7
D5a
2.3
4.8
6.0
2.0
4.3
3.3
  
D5*
2.3
  
4.0
3.9
2.1
3.3
5.8

 

mtDNA Haplogroup
 Hong Kong Taiwan-1 Taiwan-2 Qinghai Shanghai Zibo
D*
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
D4a
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
D4b
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
D4*
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
D4k
10.0
18.2
18.7
17.9
25.0
26.0
D5a
  
1.5
2.6
2.6
3.3
4.0
D5*
  
3.0
5.8
2.6
5.0
2.0
ND = not determined

 

D5a Sequence Variation in the Chinese Han

Population 16001–16497 HVS-I (16000+) 30–407 VS-II (73 and 263) 10171–10659(10000+)
Gongdong 164 172 182C 183C 189 223 235 266 291 491G 150315+C 364 397 398 400
Wuhan 164 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 300 362 309+C 315+C 397 398 400
Gongdong 164 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 362 150 315+C 397 398 400
Xinjiang 092 145 164 182d 183C 189 223 266 362 150 315+C 397 398 400
Qingdao 092 164 167 182C 183C 189 266 362 150 309+CC 315+C 397 398 400
Qingdao 092 172 182C 183C 189 223 362 150 315+C 397 398 400
Xinjiang 092 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 362 150 309+C 315+C 397 398 400
Wuhan 172 182d 183C 189 223 266 362 150 309+CC 315+C 397 398 400
Yunnan 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 299 319 362 150 309+C 315+C 397 398 400
Liaoning 169 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 362 150 309+C 315+C 397 398 400

 

 

* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

 

 

* The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers by Han-Jun Jin, et al.

Distribution of mtDNA Haplogroup Frequencies in 7 East Asian Populations

Haplogroup Korean-Chinese Mongolian Manchurian Han (Beijing) Vietnamese Thais Korean
D
1
        
2
1
D4
11
5
8
5
7
1
44
D4a
3
    
2
    
3
D4b  
1
        
3
D5
2
  
1
3
1
  
6
D5a    
1
2
1
  
3
n
51
47
40
40
42
40
185
D5a (%)    
2.5
5
2.2
  
1.6

 

Excerpt: The highest (23.8%) frequency in the Korean mtDNA pool was observed for haplogroup D4, which is widespread in northern East Asia and especially in the Korean-Chinese (21.6%), and Manchurians (20.0%). In total, haplogroup D lineages including the subhaplogroups (D4, D4a, D4b, D5, and D5a) accounted for 32.4% of the Korean mtDNA pool. In addition, the Koreans present moderate frequencies of (sub)haplogroup A (8.1%) and (sub)haplogroup G (10.3%) lineages, mostly prevalent in northeast Asia and southeast Siberia. Other Siberian and Mongolian-prevalent haplogroups from the C, Y and Z lineages make up less than 4% of the Korean mtDNA pool. Haplogroups A5a and Y2 are found almost exclusively in Korea but were present at extremely low frequencies. In total, these northern haplogroups account for ~60% of the mtDNA gene pool of the Koreans. In addition, southeast Asian-prevalent mtDNA lineages of (sub)haplogroups B (14.6%), M7 (10.3%), and F (9.7) are also found at moderate frequencies in the Korean population). These findings suggest that more than 30% of the Korean mtDNA pool is attributable to maternal lineages with a more southern origin. We also found the haplogroup M7a1 exclusively in the Korean population. This result is consistent with previous reports that haplogroup M7a is restricted to Japan and south Korea. Thus, the distribution pattern of mtDNA haplogroups leads us to consider that the peopling of Korea is likely to have involved multiple sources.

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Control Region Sequences in Koreans: Identification of useful variable sites and phylogenetic analysis for mtDNA data quality control by Hwan Young Lee, et al.

List of important nucleotide positions that identify East Asian mtDNA haplogroups and haplogroup frequencies in Koreans (sample total: 592 Korean mtDNAs )

Haplogroup

HV1a

HV2a

HV3, etc.a

Sample

D4*

16223–16362

  

489

93

D4a

16129–16223–16362

152

(16519)–489

30

D4b

16223–16319–16362

  

489–523d–524d

4

D4b1

16223–16319–16362

152

489–523d–524d

6

D4b2

16223–16362

194

16519–489–523d–524d

20

D5

16189–16223–16362

150

489

3

D5a

16182Y–16183–16189–16223–16266–16362

150

489–523d–524d

12

D5b

16189–16223–16362

150

456–489

16

D*

16362

  

489

7

 

 

* Genetic Characterization and Assessment of Authenticity of Ancient Korean Skeletal Remains by Hwan Young Lee, et al.

Excerpt: Two major hypotheses regarding early migration routes into East Asia have been proposed. The first hypothesis postulates a Southeast Asian origin followed by a northward migration (Turner 1990), and the second hypothesis suggests a bi- or multidirectional route (Nei and Roychoudhury 1993; Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994; Karafet et al. 2001). Because of its geographic location, the Korean population group will be able to give valuable information about the migration routes and population expansion in East Asia. Based on archeological, anthropological, and linguistic evidence, the early Korean population is assumed to have a common origin in the northern regions of the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal of southeastern Siberia (Han 1995; Choi and Rhee 2001). Some evidence also points to recent migration and range expansion through northern China to Korea (Chard 1974; Hammer and Horai 1995; Yun 1998; Choi and Rhee 2001). As a result of the northeastward migration from China beginning in the 3rd century b.c., the ancient Chosun, which was the first state-level society of Korea established in southern Manchuria around 2333 b.c., moved into the northwestern area of the Korean peninsula. Archeological evidence also suggests migration from China, showing that rice cultivation, which had been introduced from the Yangtze River basin in southern China, had spread to all parts of the Korean peninsula by about 1000 b.c. (Choi and Rhee 2001). In addition, recent analyses of mtDNA (Kivisild et al. 2002) and the Y chromosome (Karafet et al. 2001; Jin et al. 2003) of modern Koreans demonstrate that the Korean population possesses lineages from both southern and northern haplogroups, thereby implying a complex process with an initial northern Asian settlement followed by several migrations from southern to northern China (Jin et al. 2003)....

Following the methods of previous reports (Kong et al. 2006; Lee et al. 2006) and by using mtDNAmanager, we could successfully assign 11 mtDNA haplotypes to 11 relevant East Asian mtDNA haplogroups or subhaplogroups: D4, D4c, D4c1b, D4e1a, D6, G3a, Fl al, B4b1a1, B4f1, A5c, and N9al (see Table 2). Although the number of analyzed samples was too small to compare the population organization in each era with other populations, the haplogroup determination results demonstrate the genetic similarity observed between ancient and modern Koreans by showing that the most prevalent haplogroups in modern Koreans, D4 and B, are also most frequently observed in the present study (Lee et al. 2006).

According to a previous report on modern East Asians (Kivisild et al. 2002), haplogroups A, D, and G are mostly found in Northeast Asians, whereas haplogroup F1a is predominant in Southeast Asians. Haplogroup B is common throughout central and southern Asia and is prominent in coastal Asian and in certain Pacific island populations (Wallace 1995). In addition, haplogroup N9a is widespread among most East Asian populations, and haplogroup A5 is specific to Koreans and Japanese (Kivisild et al. 2002). Haplogroup G3 is also seen in modern Koreans, Mongolians, and Central Asians (Kivisild et al. 2002).

On the other hand, according to reports on Native Americans and Asian mtDNAs (Torroni et al. 1993, 1994; Wallace 1995), haplogroups A, B, C, and D crossed from Siberia into the Americas to found the Paleo-Indians of the Amerind linguistic group through two migrations. In the first migration (26,000-34,000 years b.p.), haplogroups A, C, and D are postulated to have gone to the Americas by means of a trans-Siberian migration crossing the Bering land bridge, and haplogroup B is suggested to have gone to the Americas by means of the second migration (12,000-15,000 years b.p.), which bypassed Siberia, possibly moving along the Siberian and Alaskan coasts (Wallace 1995). Accordingly, the presence of haplogroups B, D, and G on the Korean peninsula in the prehistoric age seems to be consistent with the hypothesis that the early Korean population has a common origin in the northern regions of the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal of southeastern Siberia (Han 1995; Choi and Rhee 2001). In addition, the presence of haplogroup B in the Neolithic Age implies gene flow into the Korean peninsula, which is near the Siberian coast, during the second migration from Asia to the Americas of mtDNA bearing the founder haplotype of the Native American haplogroup B. The estimated age of the second migration (12,000-15,000 years b.p.) is also likely to be consistent with this hypothesis. After all, it is probable that the early Korean population has a northern origin and that the modern Korean population, which possesses lineages from both southern and northern haplogroups, might be the result of several gene flows from southern haplogroups in recent times. However, the analysis of many more ancient samples will be needed to ensure that there was regional continuity or replacement of early lineages in ancient Korea.

 

 

Altai Mountains

The Altai Mountains (阿爾泰山脈,) are a mountain range in central Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together, and where the rivers Irtysh, Ob and Yenisei have their sources. The Altai Mountains are known as the Turkic peoples' birthplace. The proposed Altaic language family (include the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages) takes its name from the mountain range.

The Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus begins in the late 5th millennium BC and lasts for about a millennium before it gives rise to the Bronze Age. The population during the Copper Age has been described as paleomongolid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as Europid in the west.

The Altai Mountains in what is now southern Russia and central China have been identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon. It is conjectured that climatic problems in this region around the start of the second millennium BC created ecological, economic and political changes which triggered a rapid and massive migration of peoples westward into northeast Europe and eastward into southeast China, Vietnam and Thailand across a frontier of some 4,000 miles. This migration took place in just five to six generations and led to peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing the same metal working technology and, in some areas, horse breeding and riding. It is further conjectured that this phenomenon may have been the medium through which the Uralic group of languages spread across Europe and Asia, ultimately producing 39 modern languages including Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian and Lappish.

* Videos: 22. Altai Mountains • Russia, Kara-Chad, Altai, v.1, A Celebration of Altaic Cultures, TURAN: Epic of Identity

 

 

* Genetic Analysis and Ethnic Affinities from Two Scytho-Siberian Skeletons by F. X. Ricaut, et al.

Abstract: We extracted DNA from two skeletons belonging to the Sytho-Siberian population, which were excavated from the Sebÿstei site (dating back 2,500 years) in the Altai Republic (Central Asia). Ancient DNA was analyzed by autosomal short tandem repeats (STRs) and by the sequencing of the hypervariable region 1 (HV1) of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region. The results showed that these two skeletons were not close relatives. Moreover, their haplogroups were characteristic of Asian populations. Comparison with the haplogroup of 3,523 Asian and American individuals linked one skeleton with a putative ancestral paleo-Asiatic population and the other with Chinese populations (mtDNA F2a and D). It appears that the genetic study of ancient populations of Central Asia brings important elements to the understanding of human population movements in Asia.

 

 

* The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic “Outliers” Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes by Kristiina Tambets, et al.

Schematic Reconstruction of Possible Entry Routes of the Predominant Saami Maternal Lineages to Fennoscandia

Broken lines indicate that the exact place of origin/route of spread of the haplogroup is unsolved/not indicated

 

Frequencies (%) of the mtDNA Haplogroup D5 of the Saami among Other Eurasian Populations:

Only haplotypes with HVS-I motif 16126-16136-16189-16223-16360-16362 and its derivatives have been taken into account

Scandinavia

Population Saami Swedes Norwegians
Language Family
U-FU
IE-G
IE-G
Sample Size
445
503
641
D5
3.1
0
0

 

Northern Europe

Population Karelians Finns Estonians Latvians Lithuanians North-Russians
Language Family
U-FU
U-FU
U-FU
IE-B
IE-B
IE-S
Sample Size
83
581
545
299
45
134
D5
1.2
.2
.2
0
0
5.2

 

Eastern Europe

Population Russians Ukrainians Poles
Language Family
IE-S
IE-S
IE-S
Sample Size
761
686
583
D5
0
0
0

 

Volga-Ural Region

Population Maris Mordvin Komis Udmurts Chuvashes Tatars Bashkirs
Language Family
U-FU
U-FU
U-FU
U-FU
A-T
A-T
A-T
Sample Size
147
111
340
182
89
176
209
D5
0
0
1.8
0
0
0
0

 

Southern Europe

Population Italians Sardinians Sicilians Cypriots Greeks Albanians Croats Bosnians
Language Family

IE-R

IE-R

IE-R

IE

IE

IE

IE-S

IE-S
Sample Size

397

115

732

188

399

199

440

395
D5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 

Central Europe

Population Germans Swiss Austrians Hungarians Czechs Slovaks Slovenes
Language Family
IE-G
IE-G
IE-G
U-FU
IE-S
IE-S
IE-S
Sample Size
582
230
101
116
177
129
110
D5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 

Siberia

Population Khants Mansis Nganasans Nenets Selkups Kets Dolgans
Language Family
U-FU
U-FU
U-SA
U-SA
U-SA
Isolate
A-T
Sample Size
255
138
131
137
120
104
130
D5
0
.7
0
0
0
0
0

 

Population Yakuts Buryats Evenks Altaians
Language Family
A-T
A-M
A-TN
A-T
Sample Size
395
126
105
339
D5
0
0
0
.3

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA of Ancient Cumanians: Culturally Asian steppe nomadic immigrants with substantially more western Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages by E. Bogácsi-Szabó, et al.

Abstract: The Cumanians were originally Asian pastoral nomads who in the 13th century migrated to Hungary. We have examined mitochondrial DNA from members of the earliest Cumanian population in Hungary from two archeologically well-documented excavations and from 74 modern Hungarians from different rural locations in Hungary. Haplogroups were defined based on HVS I sequences and examinations of haplogroup-associated polymorphic sites of the protein coding region and of HVS II. To exclude contamination, some ancient DNA samples were cloned. A database was created from previously published mtDNA HVS I sequences (representing 2,615 individuals from different Asian and European populations) and 74 modem Hungarian sequences from the present study. This database was used to determine the relationships between the ancient Cumanians, modern Hungarians, and Eurasian populations and to estimate the genetic distances between these populations. We attempted to deduce the genetic trace of the migration of Cumanians. This study is the first ancient DNA characterization of an eastern pastoral nomad population that migrated into Europe. The results indicate that, while still possessing a Central Asian steppe culture, the Cumanians received a large admixture of maternal genes from more westerly populations before arriving in Hungary. A similar dilution of genetic, but not cultural, factors may have accompanied the settlement of other Asian nomads in Europe.

Excerpt: Haplogroup Assignment. For the 11 bone samples two partially overlapping sequences (266 bp and 239 bp long) were aligned to obtain the mitochondrial HVS I sequence between nt 15975 and nt 16420 (446 bp). Sequences represent eight different haplotypes, which belong to six haplogroups according to HVS I sequences and RFLP motifs (Table 6). Five out of the six clades are West Eurasian haplogroups (H, V, U, U3, and JT), which are included in the N macrohaplogroup, and the last one is an East Asian haplogroup (D), which belongs to the M lineage.

Mutations in sample Cu26 are characteristic of haplogroup D. This haplogroup occurs with high frequency in Northern Chinese populations (Mongolian, 33.3%; Oroqen, 31.8%; Korean, 22.9%; Ewenki, 25.5%; Daur, 15.6%) (Kong et al. 2003), Central Asian populations (Kazakhs, 29%; Kirghiz Highland, 29.7%; Kirghiz Lowland, 41.6%; Uighur, 25.4%) (Comas et al. 1998), and Siberian populations [Sojot, 46.7%; Buryat, 33%) (Derenko et al. 2003); and Nganasan, 37%; Yukagir, 33%; Nivkh, 28%; Eskimo, 20%; Chukchi, 17% (Torroni et al. 1993)], but the occurrence of haplogroup D is very rare among Europeans (e.g., 1.86% in European Russians) (Helgason et al. 2001), except Saamis (5.11%) (Helgason et al. 2001). Among the studied modern Hungarians haplogroup D did not occur.

 

 

* Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of a 2,000-Year-Old Necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia by Christine Keyser-Tracqui, et al.

Abstract: DNA was extracted from the skeletal remains of 62 specimens excavated from the Egyin Gol necropolis, in northern Mongolia. This burial site is linked to the Xiongnu period and was used from the 3rd century b.c. to the 2nd century a.d. Three types of genetic markers were used to determine the genetic relationships between individuals buried in the Egyin Gol necropolis. Results from analyses of autosomal and Y chromosome short tandem repeats, as well as mitochondrial DNA, showed close relationships between several specimens and provided additional background information on the social organization within the necropolis as well as the funeral practices of the Xiongnu people. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using biparental, paternal, and maternal genetic systems to reconstruct partial genealogies in a protohistoric necropolis.

Excerpt: A majority (89%) of the Xiongnu sequences can be classified as belonging to an Asian haplogroup (A, B4b, C, D4, D5 or D5a, or F1b), and nearly 11% belong to European haplogroups (U2, U5a1a, and J1). This finding indicates that the contacts between European and Asian populations were anterior to the Xiongnu culture, and it confirms results reported for two samples from an early 3rd century b.c. Scytho-Siberian population (Clisson et al. 2002).

Haplogroup 16092T 16189T 16223C 16311T 16362T
D5/D5a
C
C
T
C
C
D5/D5a
C
C
T
C
C

 

 

* The Emerging Limbs and Twigs of the East Asian mtDNA Tree by Toomas Kivisild, et al.

Excerpt: D4 seems to be the predominant bough of D, but as a whole it cannot be identified without coding region markers. D5 is characterized by a transition at 16189 in conjunction with the reversal of the RFLP marker for M (caused by a transition at 10397); it is most frequent in southern China but rare or absent in Central Asians and Siberians.

 

 

* Phylogeny of East Asian Mitochondrial DNA Lineages Inferred from Complete Sequences by Qing-Peng Kong, et al.

Phylogenetic Tree (Haplogroup D) of 48 East Asian mtDNA Lineages

 

 

* A Spatial Analysis of Genetic Structure of Human Populations in China Reveals Distinct Difference between Maternal and Paternal Lineages by Fuzhong Xue, et al.

The Frequency Maps of Dominating mtDNA Haplogroups

 

Distribution of Northern and Southern Dominating Haplogroups of mtDNA

Haplogroup Frequencies in south Frequencies in north
D *
12.17
20.44
D5
2.53
4.27
D5a
1.07
2.27

 

 

* Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of China: A Caveat About Inferences Drawn from Ancient DNA by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

mtDNA sequence variation in the 2,500-year-old, 2,000-year-old, and modern mtDNAs from Shandong Province, China

Population
 Haplogroup HVS-I (minus 16000)
2,000-year-old Yixi, Shandong
D5
 265C 274
2,000-year-old Yixi, Shandong
D5a
 223 266 362
Modern Taian, Shandong
D5a
 092 182C 183C 189 223 266 362
Modern Taian, Shandong
D5a
 092 164 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 362
Modern Taian, Shandong
D5
 093 183C 189 223 362
Modern Taian, Shandong
D5
 182C 183C 189 223 362 519
Modern Taian, Shandong
D5
 183C 189 223 362
Modern Taian, Shandong
D5
 167 179 189 223 362

 

 

* Control Region Sequences for East Asian Individuals in the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods Forensic mtDNA Data Set by Marc W Allard, et al.

Abstract: The Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) population data set is used to infer the relative rarity of mtDNA profiles obtained from evidence samples and of profiles used to identify missing persons. In this study, the East Asian haplogroup patterns in the SWGDAM data sets were analyzed in a phylogenetic context to determine relevant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and to describe haplogroup distributions for Asians (n=753; with a breakdown of individuals from China n=356, Korea n=182, Japan n=163, and Thailand n=52). We focus on the patterns observed in the SWGDAM Chinese data set and refer to interesting differences in the smaller subgroup data sets for the other East Asian populations (Japanese, Korean, and Thai). A total of 218 SNPs were observed in the data set, including 37 observed positions not previously reported. In the largest of the East Asian SWGDAM data sets (Chinese), these SNPs ranged from having 1 to 29 changes in the phylogenetic tree, with site 16519 being the most variable. On average there were 4.5 changes for a character on the tree. The most variable sites (with 14 or more changes each listed from fastest to slowest) observed were 16519 (L=29), 16311 (L=27), 152 (L=24), 146 (L=21), 16172 (L=17), 16189 (L=17), 195 (L=16), 16362 (L=15), 16093 (L=14), 16129 (L=14), and 150 (L=14). These rapidly changing sites are consistent with other published analyses. Only 28 SNPs are needed to identify all clusters containing 1% (n=7) or more individuals in the East Asian data set. All 36 haplogroups previously observed in East Asian populations were also seen in the SWGDAM data sets and include: A, B, B4, B4a, B4b, B5a, B5b, C, D, D4, D4a, D4b, D5, D5a, F, F1, F1a, F1b, F1c, F2a, G2, G2a, M, M7a1, M7b, M7b1, M7b2, M7c, M8a, M9, M10, N9a, R, R9a, Y, and Z. Haplogroups A, B4a, D4, and F1a were the most commonly observed clusters in the Chinese data set (the largest of the data sets) with each of these occurring in more than 6% of the samples in the data set. The next most common haplogroups in the Chinese data set include the clusters C, M7b1, and N9a with each observed at frequencies greater than or equal to 4%. European Caucasian, and African haplogroups were rarely observed within the East Asian data sets. The various analyses revealed that the data set was similar to published East Asian data sets such as those from Han Chinese.

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Polymorphisms of Five Ethnic Populations from Northern China by Qing-Peng Kong, et al.

Geographic Locations of the Five Ethnic Populations in Northern China

 

Population

Haplogroup

HVS-I (16001–16497)b (16000+)
Daur
D5a

092 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 362
Daur
D5a

092 164 182C 183C 189 223 266 362
Oroqen
D5a

164 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 274 362
Oroqen
D5a

092 102 164 182C 183C 189 223 266 362
Mongolian
D5a

092 164 179 182C 183C 189 223 259 266 362
Evenki
D5a

051 172 182C 183C 189 223 266 362

 

 

* Sequence Polymorphism of mtDNA HVR Iand HVR II of Oroqen Ethnic Group in Inner Mongolia by CX Yan, et al.

Abstract: Venous blood samples from 50 unrelated Oroqen individuals living in Inner Mongolia were collected and their mtDNA HVR I and HVR II sequences were detected by using ABI PRISM377 sequencers. The number of polymorphic loci, haplotype, haplotype frequence, average nucleotide variability and other polymorphic parameters were calculated. Based on Oroqen mtDNA sequence data obtained in our experiments and published data, genetic distance between Oroqen ethnic group and other populations were computered by Nei's measure. Phylogenetic tree was constructed by Neighbor Joining method. Comparing with Anderson sequence, 52 polymorphic loci in HVR I and 24 loci in HVR II were found in Oroqen mtDNA sequence, 38 and 27 haplotypes were defined herewith. Haplotype diversity and average nucleotide variability were 0.964+/-0.018 and 7.379 in HVR I, 0.929+/-0.019 and 2.408 in HVR II respectively. Fst and dA genetic distance between 12 populations were calculated based on HVR I sequence, and their relative coefficients were 0.993(P < 0.01). A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on genetic distances and included Oroqen, Taiwan and South Han population in a clade, which indicated near genetic relation between them, and far relation with northern Han, Mongolian and other foreign populations. The genetic polymorphism of mtDNA HVR I and HVR II in Oroqen ethnic group has some specificities compared with that of other populations. These data provide a useful tool in forensic identification, population genetic study and other research fields.

 

 

* Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA Lineageas in South Siberia by M.V. Derenko, et al.

Excerpts: Haplogroup d, comprising 17.9% of the combined data set, showed the greatest diversity of HVR1 sequences relative to other haplogroups. The network of haplogroup D mtDNAs was highly starlike, with a root sequence distributed widely throughout Siberia. By contrast, the majority of its derivates is found predominantly in Buryats. Additionally, at least one cluster, defined by a transition at np 16319, could be indentified. The memebers of this cluster, including teh ancestral sequence, occur mainly in altaians, Tuvinians, and Buryats. A small, additional cluster D5, characterized by a transition at 16189 in conjuction with the lack of M-specific R FLPs (caused by a transition at 10397; Bandelt et al. 1999), was identified in the same populations. According to published data, it seems that this cluster has a very restricted distribution: it is most frequent in China but rare or absent in Central Asia and Siberia (Kolman et al. 1996; Yao et al. 2002). Cluster D5 encompasses two HVR1 motifs, 16092-16266 (D5a) and 16126-16316-16360 (D5b). The lattter is found in one Altaian, and the same HVR1 sequence was previously observed in the Saami with a frequency of 4.7% (Delghandi et al. 1998).

The estimated coalescence age of haplogroup D in South siberia is 37500+/-6700 years B.P., suggesting that this haplogroup evolved nad expanded well before the Last Glacial Maximum

 

HVR1 Sequence Variation and mtDNA Haplogroup (HG) Status of 480 South Siberian Samples

HG HVR1 Sequence Altaians Khakassians Buryats Sojots Todjins Tuvans Tofalars
D5a 051 172 189 223 266 362    
1
        
D5a 092 126 164 189 223 266 362
1
1
          
D5a 092 164 172 189 223 266 362          
2
  
n  
110
53
91
30
48
90
58

 

 

* Phylogeographic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA in Northern Asian Populations by Miroslava Derenko, et al.

Excerpt: The eastern Eurasian lineages in central and southwestern Asian populations are represented by haplogroups A4, B4, B5, C, D4, D5, G2a, G3, M10, Y, and Z. Their proportion is much higher in Tajiks (in total, 31.8%) than in Kurds and Persians (12% and 13.5%, respectively). It is noteworthy that subgroup B4b1 (defined by mutations at positions 16086 and 16136, in addition to the B4b general motif), which is characteristic of populations of southern Siberia and Mongolia, was also found in northeastern Iran among Persians (at a frequency of 2.4%). Conversely, subgroup J1b2—which is relatively frequent in Indo-Iranian populations—was found, for instance, at frequencies of 12% and 3.7% in our Kurd and Persian samples, respectively, and is present at a marked frequency (~3%) in Altaian populations (both in Telenghits and Altaians-Kizhi)....

 

 

Haplogroup D Frequencies (%) in Siberia, Southwestern Asia, and Central Asia

Haplogroup Persians
 Kurds
 Tajiks
 Koreans
 Mongolians Kalmyks
 Buryats
 Khamnigans
 Tuvinians
D2          
1.8
.7
1.0
2.9
D3            
2.4
5.1
1.0
D4
1.2
12
4.5
32.0
11.0
22.0
29.0
25.0
8.6
D5
1.2
  
2.3
7.8
  
1.5
2.7
2.0
2.9

 

Haplogroup East Evenks West Evenks Yakuts
 Shors Khakassians
 Altaians-Kizhi
 Teleuts
 Telenghits
 Chukchi
D2
2.2
  
2.8
          
13.0
D3
13.0
5.5
2.8
    
2.2
      
D4
8.9
18.0
14.0
11.0
16.0
6.7
23.0
21.0
  
D5  
6.8
2.8
1.2
    
1.9
    

 

 

* Comparative Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA of Yakuts and other Asian Populations by L. Tarskaia, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial DNA of Yakuts has been compared to those of other Asian populations that belong to the Turkic, Mongolic, and Manchu-Tungusic linguistic groups. Haplogroups C and D proved to be the most frequent ones in Yakuts. In contrast to other Asian populations, subcluster D5a is major in Yakuts. The results have demonstrated that Yakuts are close to Tuvinians and Altaians in maternal lineage.

 

 

Yakut

Yakuts, self-designation: Sakha, are a Turkic people associated with the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic.

The Yakut or Sakha language belongs to the Northern branch of the Turkic family of languages. There are about 456,000 speakers (Russian census, 2002) mainly in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenki Autonomous Districts. Out of all population in Yakutia 422,000 are Yakuts or about 39% of the population in Yakutia; their share lowered during Soviet rule due to forced immigration, and other relocation policies, but has slightly increased since.

The Yakuts are divided into two basic groups based on geography and economics. Yakuts in the north are historically semi-nomadic hunters, fishermen, yak and reindeer breeders, while southern Yakuts engage in animal husbandry focusing on horses and cattle.

Yakuts originally migrated from Olkhon and the region of Lake Baikal to the basins of the Middle Lena, the Aldan and Vilyuy rivers, where they mixed with other northern indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Evens and Evenks.

The northern Yakuts were largely hunters, fishermen and reindeer herders, while the southern Yakut raised cattle and horses. Both groups lived in yurts and led a semi-nomadic life moving from winter to summer camps each year.

Traditions of Ossetians, Pashtuns, the Turkic Kazakhs and Yakuts (whose endoethnonym is "Sakha"), and Parthians (whose homelands laid to the east of the Caspian Sea and thought to have come there from north of the Caspian), were possible descendants of a Scythian groups. Their physical features, and big stature, which is very evident from their coins etc., link them to the Scythians.

* Videos: Yakut Song, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

 

* Population Origines in Mongolia: Genetic Structure Analysis of Ancient and Modern DNA by Christine Keyser-Tracqui, et al.

In the present study, nuclear (autosomal and Y-chromosome short tandem repeats) and mitochondrial (hypervariable region I) ancient DNA data previously obtained from a 2,300-year-old Xiongnu population of the Egyin Gol Valley (south of Lake Baikal in northern Mongolia) (Keyser-Tracqui et al. 2003 Am. J. Hum. Genet. 73:247-260) were compared with data from two contemporary Mongolian populations: one from the same location (Egyin Gol Valley plus a perimeter of less than 100 km around the valley), and one from the whole of Mongolia. The principal objective of this comparative analysis was to assess the likelihood that genetic continuity exists between ancient and present-day Mongolian populations. Since the ancient Xiongnu sample might have been composed of some of the ancestors of the present-day Yakuts, data from a present-day Yakut population, as well as published data from Turkish populations, were also included in the comparative analysis. The main result of our study was the genetic similarity observed among Mongolian samples from different periods and geographic areas. This result supports the hypothesis that the succession over time of different Turkic and Mongolian tribes in the current territory of Mongolia resulted in cultural rather than genetic exchanges. Furthermore, it appears that the Yakuts probably did not find their origin among the Xiongnu tribes, as we previously hypothesized.

 

* The Origins of the Yakut People: Evidence from Mitochondrial DNA Diversity by Mark Zlojutro, et al.

Abstract: The Yakuts are a Turkic-speaking population of northeastern Siberia and based on archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence are believed to have originated from Turkic populations in south Siberia. To investigate this model, the HVS-I of the mitochondrial DNA control region was sequenced for 144 Yakut individuals representing seven communities from central Yakutia and compared to HVS-I data for other Asian populations. Haplogroups C and D comprise 75.7% of the Yakut sample, with only 9.7% assigned to west Eurasian lineages. The Ewens-Watterson homozygosity test revealed a significant deviation (P = 0.045) in the observed frequencies of common haplotypes relative to the expected values, indicating the genetic effects of a founder event. This is supported by a fragmented MJ network dominated by high-frequency haplotypes within haplogroups C and D. Nested cladistic analysis identified subhaplogroup D5a as the product of a long distance colonization event and potential founder lineage for the Yakuts, dating to approximately 1,630 years BP. SAMOVA analyses and MDS plot of genetic distances show close genetic affinities between the Yakuts and south Siberian populations, and thus affirming the south origin model.

Excerpt: Seventeen haplotypes, representing 42 Yakut individuals (29.1%), were assigned to haplogroup D on the absence of 5176 AluI and HVS-I transitions 16223T and 16362C. Three of the haplotypes belong to a fragmented subhaplogroup D5a (9.7%) based on the loss of two diagnostic restriction sites for macrohaplogroup M, 10394 DdeI and 10397 AluI (both of which are due to a 10397G transition that concomitantly creates a BmrI restriction site), and transitions 16189C and 16266T. Subhaplogroup D5a is predominantly found among south Siberians and East Asian groups such as the Han, although at low frequencies (about 1-3%). The second most common HVS-I sequence (12 Yakut individuals or 8.3%) is the D5a lineage exhibiting the transitions 16092C and 16172C and is evolutionarily removed from the other two D5a singletons by these two mutations. This common haplotype is only shared with the Yukaghir and Mongol samples (each with only a single sequence) and given its relative isolation within the Yakut network suggests that it is the genetic consequence of a population bottleneck.

 

* Investigating the Effects of Prehistoric Migrations in Siberia: Genetic variation and the origins of Yakuts by Brigitte Pakendorf, et al.

Abstract: The Yakuts (also known as Sakha), Turkic-speaking cattle- and horse-breeders, inhabit a vast territory in Central and northeastern Siberia. On the basis of the archaeological, ethnographic and linguistic evidence, they are assumed to have migrated north from their original area of settlement in the vicinity of Lake Baykal in South Siberia under the pressure of the Mongol expansion during the thirteenth to fifteenth century . During their initial migration and subsequent expansion, the ancestors of the Yakuts settled in the territory originally occupied by Tungusic- and Uralic-speaking reindeer-herders and hunters. In this paper we use mtDNA and Y-chromosomal analyses to elucidate whether the Yakut immigration and expansion was accompanied by admixture with the indigenous populations of their new area of settlement or whether the Yakuts displaced the original inhabitants without intermarriage. The mtDNA results show a very close affinity of the Yakuts with Central Asian and South Siberian groups, which confirms their southern origin. There is no conclusive evidence for admixture with indigenous populations, though a small amount cannot be excluded on the basis of the mtDNA data alone. The Y-chromosomal results confirm previous findings of a very strong bottleneck in the Yakuts, the age of which is in good accordance with the hypothesis that the Yakuts migrated north under Mongol pressure. Furthermore, the genetic results show that the Yakuts are a very homogenous population, notwithstanding their current spread over a very large territory. This confirms the historical accounts that they spread over their current area of settlement fairly recently.

 

* Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in Yakuts by S. A. Fedorova, et al.

Abstract: To study the mitochondrial gene pool structure in Yakuts, polymorphism of mtDNA hypervariable segment I (16,024–16,390) was analyzed in 191 people sampled from the indigenous population of the Sakha Republic. In total, 67 haplotypes of 14 haplogroups were detected. Most (91.6%) haplotypes belonged to haplogroups A, B, C, D, F, G, M*, and Y, which are specific for East Eurasian ethnic groups; 8.4% haplotypes represented Caucasian haplogroups H, HV1, J, T, U, and W. A high frequency of mtDNA types belonging to Asian supercluster M was peculiar for Yakuts: mtDNA types belonging to haplogroup C, D, or G and undifferentiated mtDNA types of haplogroup M (M*) accounted for 81% of all haplotypes. The highest diversity was observed for haplogroups C and D, which comprised respectively 22 (44%) and 18 (30%) haplotypes. Yakuts showed the lowest genetic diversity (H = 0.964) among all Turkic ethnic groups. Phylogenetic analysis testified to common genetic substrate of Yakuts, Mongols, and Central Asian (Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uighur) populations. Yakuts proved to share 21 (55.5%) mtDNA haplotypes with the Central Asian ethnic groups and Mongols. Comparisons with modern Paleoasian populations (Chukcha, Itelmen, Koryaks) revealed three (8.9%) haplotypes common for Yakuts and Koryaks. The results of mtDNA analysis disagree with the hypothesis of an appreciable Paleoasian contribution to the modern Yakut gene pool.

 

* Phylogenetic Analysis of Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Lineages of Human Remains Found in Yakutia by S. A. Fedorova, et al.

Abstract: Molecular genetic analysis of ancient human remains is mostly based on mtDNA owing to its better preservation in human bones in comparison with nuclear DNA. A study was made of mtDNA extracted from human skeletons found in graves in Yakutia, in order to determine the haplotypes and to compare them with lineages of modern populations. Ancient DNA was extracted from fragments of three skeletons of Yakut graves at At-Dabaan, Ojuluun, and Jaraama sites (dating back to the 18th century) and two skeletons of the Late Neolithic Kerdugen grave (2000–1000 B.C.). All graves were found in central Yakutia (Churapchinskii, Khangalasskii, and Megino-Khangalasskii districts of Yakutia). Five different haplotypes belonging to specific Asian haplogroups were identified. The mtDNA lineages of Yakut graves belong to haplogroups C4a, D5a2, and B5b. The results indicate the continuity of mitochondrial lineages in the Yakut gene pool in the past 300 years. The haplotypes of two humans from the Kerdugen site graves belong to haplogroups A4 and G2a/D. These haplotypes were compared with those of 40000 Eurasian individuals, including 900 from Yakutia. No exact matches were found in Paleo-Asian populations of Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryaks, and Itelmen. Phylogenetically close haplotypes (±1 mutation) were found in Yakut and Evenk populations, as well as in some populations of China and South and West Siberia.

 

 

* The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic “Outliers” Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes by Kristiina Tambets, et al.

Excerpt: Only a minor portion of the Saami maternal lineages (average ~5%) that exhibit restricted diversity belong to haplogroups that are characteristic of Asian populations—that is, D5 and Z (table 1). These eastern Eurasian haplogroups are significantly more frequent (P<.05) among the Finnish Saami compared with Norwegian and Swedish Saami samples (table 2).

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Two Russian Populations from Novgorod Oblast by A. V. Lunkina, et al.

Abstract:  Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphism was examined in two Russian populations of Novgorod oblast, from the city of Velikii Novgorod (n = 81), and the settlement of Volot (n = 79). This analysis showed that the mitochondrial gene pool of Russians examined was represented by the mtDNA types belonging to 20 haplogroups and subhaplogroups distributed predominantly among the European populations. Haplogroups typical of the indigenous populations of Asia were found in the population sample from Velikii Novgorod with the average frequency of 3.7% (haplogroups A, Z, and D5), and with the frequency of 6.3% (haplogroups Z, D, and M*) in the Volot population. It was demonstrated that the frequency of the mitochondrial lineages combination, D5, Z, U5b-16144, and U8, typical of the Finnish-speaking populations of Northeastern Europe, was somewhat higher in the urban population (7.4%) compared to rural one (3.8%). The problem of genetic differentiation of Russians from Eastern Europe inferred from mtDNA data, is discussed.

 

 

* Complex Interactions of the Eastern and Western Slavic Populations with Other European Groups as Revealed by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Tomasz Grzybowski, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation was examined by the control region sequencing (HVS I and HVS II) and RFLP analysis of haplogroup-diagnostic coding region sites in 570 individuals from four regional populations of Poles and two Russian groups from northwestern part of the country. Additionally, sequences of complete mitochondrial genomes representing K1a1b1a subclade in Polish and Polish Roma populations have been determined. Haplogroup frequency patterns revealed in Poles and Russians are similar to those characteristic of other Europeans. However, there are several features of Slavic mtDNA pools seen on the level of regional populations which are helpful in the understanding of complex interactions of the Eastern and Western Slavic populations with other European groups. One of the most important is the presence of subhaplogroups U5b1b1, D5, Z1 and U8a with simultaneous scarcity of haplogroup K in populations of northwestern Russia suggesting the participation of Finno-Ugrian tribes in the formation of mtDNA pools of Russians from this region. The results of genetic structure analyses suggest that Russians from Velikii Novgorod area (northwestern Russia) and Poles from Suwalszczyzna (northeastern Poland) differ from all remaining Polish and Russian samples. Simultaneously, northwestern Russians and northeastern Poles bear some similarities to Baltic (Latvians) and Finno-Ugrian groups (Estonians) of northeastern Europe, especially on the level of U5 haplogroup frequencies. The occurrence of K1a1b1a subcluster in Poles and Polish Roma is one of the first direct proofs of the presence of Ashkenazi-specific mtDNA lineages in non-Jewish European populations.

 

 

* Russian Old Believers: Genetic Consequences of Their Persecution and Exile, as Shown by Mitochondrial DNA Evidence by Samara Rubinstein, et al.

Abstract: In 1653, the Patriarch Nikon modified liturgical practices to bring the Russian Orthodox Church in line with those of the Eastern (Greek) Orthodox Church, from which it had split 200 years earlier. The Old Believers (staroveri) rejected these changes and continued to worship using the earlier practices. These actions resulted in their persecution by the Russian Orthodox Church, which forced them into exile across Siberia. Given their history, we investigate whether populations of Old Believers have diverged genetically from other Slavic populations as a result of their isolation. We also examine whether the three Old Believer populations analyzed in this study are part of a single gene pool (founder population) or are instead derived from heterogeneous sources. As part of this analysis, we survey the mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 189 Russian Old Believer individuals from three populations in Siberia and 201 ethnic Russians from different parts of Siberia for phylogenetically informative mutations in the coding and noncoding regions. Our results indicate that the Old Believers have not significantly diverged genetically from other Slavic populations over the 200–300 years of their isolation in Siberia. However, they do show some unique patterns of mtDNA variation relative to other Slavic groups, such as a high frequency of subhaplogroup U4, a surprisingly low frequency of haplogroup H, and low frequencies of the rare East Eurasian subhaplogroup D5.

 

 

* Admixture, Migrations, and Dispersals in Central Asia: Evidence from maternal DNA lineages by David Comas, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages of 232 individuals from 12 Central Asian populations were sequenced for both control region hypervariable segments, and additional informative sites in the coding region were also determined. Most of the mtDNA lineages belong to branches of the haplogroups with an eastern Eurasian (A, B, C, D, F, G, Y, and M haplogroups) or a western Eurasian (HV, JT, UK, I, W, and N haplogroups) origin, with a small fraction of Indian M lineages. This suggests that the extant genetic variation found in Central Asia is the result of admixture of already differentiated populations from eastern and western Eurasia. Nonetheless, two groups of lineages, D4c and G2a, seem to have expanded from Central Asia and might have their Y-chromosome counterpart in lineages belonging to haplotype P(xR1a). The present results suggest that the mtDNA found out of Africa might be the result of a maturation phase, presumably in the Middle East or eastern Africa, that led to haplogroups M and N, and subsequently expanded into Eurasia, yielding a geographically structured group of external branches of these two haplogroups in western and eastern Eurasia, Central Asia being a contact zone between two differentiated groups of peoples.

 

Phylogenetic Reconstruction and Geographic Distribution of the Haplogroups Found in Central Asia

(East Asian, West Eurasian, and Indian lineages are shown in white, pale gray, and dark gray, respectively)

 

 

* Analyses of Genetic Structure of Tibeto-Burman Populations Reveals Sex-Biased Admixture in Southern Tibeto-Burmans by Bo Wen, et al.

 

Population Tibetan Qinghai Tibetan Tibet Tibetan Yunnan Tibetan Yunnan Ainu Bai Bai Hani Jino Lahu Lahu Lahu
D*
4
  
3
20
7
9
3
6
  
2
4
5
D5      
2
3
4
  
2
1
1
    
D5a        
2
    
1
        
n
56
24
35
40
50
68
19
33
18
32
15
35
D5a (%)
4
3

 

Population Lisu Naxi Nu Pumi Tujia Tujia Yi Yi Yi
D*
3
2
6
6
9
3
4
3
8
D5        
1
2
1
  
2
D5a        
4
  
1
    
n
37
45
30
36
64
30
40
16
31
D5a (%)
6.3
2.5

 

 

Regions with Significant Tujia Populations

 

 

* mtDNA Evidence: Genetic background associated with related populations at high risk for esophageal cancer between Chaoshan and Taihang Mountain areas in China by Xiao-Yun Li, et al.

Abstract: There are three major geographic regions in China known for their high incidences of esophageal cancer (EC): the Taihang Mountain range of north-central China, the Minnan area of Fujian province, and the Chaoshan plain of Guangdong province. Historically, waves of great population migrations from north-central China through coastal Fujian to the Chaoshan plain were recorded. To study the genetic relationship among the related EC high-risk populations, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups based on 30 EC patients from Chaoshan and used control samples from the high-risk populations, including 48, 73, and 89 subjects from the Taihang, Fujian, and Chaoshan areas, respectively. The principal component of all haplogroups, correlation analysis of haplogroup frequency distributions between populations, and haplogroup D network analysis showed that compared with other Chinese populations, populations in the three studied areas are genetically related. The highest haplogroup frequency shared by all studied populations was haplogroup D, with much higher frequency in the Chaoshan area EC patients. The majority of haplogroup D individuals among the Chaoshan area EC patients belonged to subhaplogroups D4a and D5a, with the total frequency of these two haplogroups significantly higher than that in the high-risk population in the same area (χ2 = 9.017, p < 0.01). In conclusion, EC high-risk populations in these three areas share a similar matrilineal genetic background, and D4a and D5a might be candidate genetic markers for screening populations susceptible to EC in the Chaoshan area. Ours is the first report to show the association between mtDNA haplogroups (D4a and D5a) and esophageal cancer.

 

 

Teochew

The Loess Plateau is shaded

The Teochew are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who primarily live in coastal eastern Guangdong in China, and represent one of the three major ethnic groups in the province. The Teochew diaspora can be found almost anywhere in the world, especially Southeast Asia, North America, Australasia and France. The diaspora, at least estimated, contains over 10 million people, which is as much as the population of Chaoshan itself. They speak a language closely related to Hokkien, and their Teochew cuisine is distinctive. The ancestors of the Teochew people have had to move to present-day Chaoshan in order to escape from a series of civil wars at the time from the Central Plains of China during the Jin Dynasty.

Teochew can be romanised in a variety of schemes, and are known in Mandarin as Chaozhou ren and Cantonese as Chiuchao yan. In referring to themselves as ethnic Chinese, Teochew people generally use Tang nang (唐人), literally Tang Dynasty people, as opposed to Han nang (漢人), which means 'Han Dynasty people'. Teochew people of the diaspora would generally use Hua nang (華人) to indicate Chinese heritage in a cultural sense.

Teochew people also commonly refer to each other as ga gi nang (自己人) which means 'our own people.

The Taihang Mountains (太行山) are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei provinces. The range extends over 400 km from north to south and has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 meters. The principal peak is Xiao Wutaishan (2,882 metres). Cangyan Shan in Hebei forms the eastern tip of the Taihang range.

The name of Shanxi Province (山西), meaning "west of the mountains", derives from its location west of the Taihang Mountains, as does the name of Shandong Province ( 山東; east of the mountains).

 

 

Neighbor-Joining Tree from Genetic Link Between Chaoshan and Other Chinese Han Populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree constructed by Nei’s genetic distance based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of Chaoshan and the other nine Chinese Han populations. Chaoshan clusters closely with the Mainland Minnan and the Mainland Hakka. All southern China-related groups in general cluster together and are separated from the China North group with the China Middle standing in between.

 

 

* Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations by Jean A Trejaut, et al.

Excerpt: Finally, haplogroup D5 is spread at a moderately low frequency throughout East Asia, being most frequent in the south and absent or rare in Central Asia and Siberia. Among Taiwanese aboriginal groups, distribution of D5 lineages is restricted to the three southernmost populations and the Amis. Although samples from Paiwan, Puyuma, and Rukai carry the root HVS-I haplotype of D5 or its one-step mutation descendants, the Amis harbor a derived motif with two substitutions (16148 and 16092) that has not been detected elsewhere in Asia so far.

 

Haplogroup D Tree

 

 

* A Mitochondrial Stratigraphy for Island Southeast Asia by Catherine Hill, et al.

Spatial Frequency Distributions of Haplogroup D5

Excerpt: Haplogroup D5 is found at ~3% overall in ISEA, although it reaches >10% in some parts of Sulawesi (fig. 5C). There is a distinct subclade, D5d1, which dates to ~4,000 years ago in ISEA and belongs to a larger clade (D5d) with a mainland Chinese origin ~12,000 years ago.

 

 

* Through the Course of Prehistory in India: Tracing the mtDNA trail by Mait Metpalu

mtDNA Haplogroup D Phylogenetic Tree

 

Excerpt

 

 

* Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia by M. Derenko, et al.

Abstract: More than a half of the northern Asian pool of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is fragmented into a number of subclades of haplogroups C and D, two of the most frequent haplogroups throughout northern, eastern, central Asia and America. While there has been considerable recent progress in studying mitochondrial variation in eastern Asia and America at the complete genome resolution, little comparable data is available for regions such as southern Siberia--the area where most of northern Asian haplogroups, including C and D, likely diversified. This gap in our knowledge causes a serious barrier for progress in understanding the demographic pre-history of northern Eurasia in general. Here we describe the phylogeography of haplogroups C and D in the populations of northern and eastern Asia. We have analyzed 770 samples from haplogroups C and D (174 and 596, respectively) at high resolution, including 182 novel complete mtDNA sequences representing haplogroups C and D (83 and 99, respectively). The present-day variation of haplogroups C and D suggests that these mtDNA clades expanded before the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), with their oldest lineages being present in the eastern Asia. Unlike in eastern Asia, most of the northern Asian variants of haplogroups C and D began the expansion after the LGM, thus pointing to post-glacial re-colonization of northern Asia. Our results show that both haplogroups were involved in migrations, from eastern Asia and southern Siberia to eastern and northeastern Europe, likely during the middle Holocene.

 

Population Distribution and Frequencies (%) of Haplogroup D and Its Subhaplogroups D2, D4, D5 in Eastern Asia

Population Ainu Koreans Mongolians Japanese Daurs, China Kazakhs, China Chinese
n
51
1297
150
1312
45
53
1930
D
17.6
33.3
22.7
37.5
24.4
13.2
16.4
D2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
D4
13.7
28.8
20.7
32.7
15.5
13.2
12.4
D5
3.9
4.5
2.0
4.8
8.9
0.0
4.0

 

Population Koreans, China Mongolians, China Orochens, China Uighurs, China Hui, China Evenks, China
n
48
97
44
47
45
47
D
33.3
29.9
43.2
10.6
15.5
31.9
D2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
D4
22.9
25.8
31.8
6.4
13.3
25.5
D5
10.4
4.1
11.4
4.2
2.2
6.4

 

Complete mtDNA phylogenetic tree of haplogroup D

Time estimates (in kya) shown for mtDNA subclusters are based on the complete mtDNA genome clock (the first value) and the synonymous clock (the second value). The size of each circle is proportional to the number of individuals sharing the corresponding haplotype, with the smallest size corresponding to one individual. Geographic origin is indicated by different colors: northeastern Asian – in blue, central and southern Siberian – in green, eastern Asian – in red, Indian – in grey, European – in yellow, and others (i.e. of unknown population origin) – in white.