Allen Hwang

Autosomal STR Analysis by DNA Tribes

Native Population Match: Hui (Guangxi), Han (Min Nan), Sichuan, Mulao (Guangxi), China, Japan, Maonan (Guangxi), Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Jilin), Japan, Korea, Japan, Miao (Guangxi), Japan, Han (Henan), Taiwanese, Han (Guangdong), Korea, Henan, Korea.

Global Population Match: Hui (Guangxi), Han (Min Nan), Sichuan, Mulao (Guangxi), China, Japan, Maonan (Guangxi), Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Chinese (Malaysia), Han (Jilin), Japan, Korea, Japan, Miao (Guangxi), Japan, Han (Henan), Taiwanese, Tokyo (Japan), Han (Guangdong), Korea.

World Region Match: South Chinese, Japanese, North Chinese, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Malay Archipelago, Mongolian, North India, India, India Tribal, Asia Minor, Finno-Ugrian, Mediterranean, Northwest European, Arabian, East African, Mestizo, Andean, Salishan, Arctic.

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Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Hui

The Hui people (回族 ) are a Chinese ethnic group, typically distinguished by their practice of Islam.

The term "Hui people" refers to one of the officially recognized 56 ethnic groups into which Chinese citizens are classified. Under this definition, the Hui people are defined to include all historically Muslim communities in People's Republic of China that are not included in China's other ethnic groups. Since China's Muslims speaking various Turkic, Mongolian, or Iranian languages are all included into those other groups (e.g., Uyghurs, Tajiks, or Dongxiang), the "officially recognized" Hui ethnic group consists predominantly of Chinese speakers. In fact, the "Hui nationality" is unique among China's officially recognized ethnic minorities in that it does not have any particular non-Chinese language associated with it.

Nonetheless, included among the Hui in Chinese census statistics (and not officially recognized as separate ethnic groups) are members of a few small non-Chinese speaking communities. Among them are several thousand Utsuls in southern Hainan province, who speak an Austronesian language (Tsat) related to that of the Cham Muslim minority of Vietnam, and who are said to be descended from Chams who migrated to Hainan. A small Muslim minority among Yunnan's Bai people are classified as Hui as well (even if they are Bai speakers), as are some groups of Tibetan Muslims.

The Hui people are concentrated in Northwestern China (Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang), but communities exist across the country, e.g. Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Yunnan, etc.

Most Hui are similar in culture to Han Chinese with the exception that they practice Islam, and have some distinctive cultural characteristics as a result. For example, as Muslims, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork, the most common meat consumed in Chinese culture, and have also given rise to their variation of Chinese cuisine, Chinese Islamic cuisine and Muslim Chinese martial arts. Their mode of dress also differs primarily in that men wear white caps and women wear headscarves or (occasionally) veils, as is the case in most Islamic cultures.

The Hui people are mixed blood. Their ancestors include Central Asian, Persian, Han Chinese, and Mongols. In ancient China, e.g. Tang and Yuan Dynasty, lots of people from Central Asian and Persia came to trade or pursue political careers. In the following nearly one thousand years, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Han Chinese, and the Hui people were formed. On account of this mixing and long residence in China, the Hui have not retained Central Asian, Persian, or Arabic names, using instead names typical of their Han Chinese neighbors; however, certain names common among the Hui can be understood as Chinese renderings of common Muslim (i.e. Arabic), Persian, and Central Asian names (for instance, "Ma" for "Muhammad").

During the mid-nineteenth century, the Muslims and the Miao people of China revolted against the Qing Dynasty, most notably in the Dungan revolt (1862-1877) and the Panthay rebellion 1856-1873) in Yunnan. These little known revolts were suppressed by the Manchu government in a manner that amounts to genocide, killing a million people in the Panthay rebellion, several million in the Dungan revolt and five million in the suppression of Miao people in Guizhou. A "washing off the Muslims"(洗回 (xi Hui)) policy had been long advocated by officials in the Manchu government.

Origins: The Hui Chinese have diverse origins, and many of whom are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers. Some in the southeast coast (Guangdong, Fujian) and in major trade centers elsewhere in China are of mixed local and foreign descent. The foreign element, although greatly diluted, came from Arab (Dashi) and Persian (Bosi) traders, who brought Islam to China. These foreigners settled in China and gradually intermarried into the surrounding population while converting them to Islam, while they in turn assimilated in all aspects of Chinese culture, keeping only their distinctive religion.

A totally different explanation is available for the Hui people of Yunnan and Northwestern China, whose ethnogenesis might be a result of the convergence of large number of Mongol, Turkic, Iranian or other Central Asian settlers in these regions, who were recruited by the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty either as officials (the semu, who formed the second-highest stratum in the Yuan Empire's ethnic hierarchy, after the Mongols themselves, but before both northern and southern Chinese) or artisans. It was documented that a proportion of the ancestral nomad or military ethnic groups were originally Nestorian Christians many of whom later converted to Islam, while under the Sinicizing pressures of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

To these days, many Hui people and non-Hui observers say that facial features of some members of their communities make them somewhat distinct from the surrounding Han population, and reflect their Southwest Asian ancestry.

In early modern times, villages in Northern Chinese Hui areas still bore labels like "Blue-cap Huihui," "Black-cap Huihui," and "White-cap Huihui," betraying their possible Christian, Judaic and Muslim origins, even though the religious practices among North China Hui by then were by and large Islamic. Hui is also used as a catch-all grouping for Islamic Chinese who are not classified under another ethnic group.

Other Hui are just converted Han chinese, according to legend, a Muhuyindeni person converted an entire village of Han to Islam.

Islam in Taiwan

Islam in Taiwan is a slowly growing religion (about 0.3% of the population, it could be higher if included nominal Muslims from Indonesia) with an estimated 100 converts annually. There are about 45,000 registered Muslims in Taiwan, as of 2007. There are 88,500 Indonesian Muslims working in Taiwan. There are six mosques throughout Taiwan, with the most notable being the Taipei Grand Mosque.

Islam originated in Hejaz and spread eastward to China as early as the 7th century AD. Muslim merchants married local Chinese women, creating a new Chinese ethnic group called the Hui people. Islam is known in Chinese as Huì Jiào (回教 Religion of the Hui) though the term 伊斯蘭教 (Yīsīlán Jiào) is becoming more popular. In China, there are some 20 million Muslims and it is believed to have first reached Taiwan in the 17th century when Muslim families from the southern Chinese coastal province of Fujian accompanied Koxinga on his invasion of Taiwan to oust the Dutch from the southern city of Tainan in 1661. These people are believed to be the first Muslim settlers on the island. Their descendants however became assimilated into Taiwanese society and adopted the local customs and religions. According to Professor Lien Ya Tang (連雅堂) in his book History of Taiwan 《臺灣通史》 (1918), there were few Muslims on the island most of whom were from other provinces in China. There was no spread of Islam and no mosques were built.

* Genetic Relationships among Japanese, Northern Han, Hui, Uygur, Kazakh, Greek, Saudi Arabian, and Italian Populations Based on Allelic Frequencies at Four VNTR (D1S80, D4S43, COL2A1, D17S5) and One STR (ACTBP2) Loci by Yoshihiko Katsuyamaa, et al.

Excerpt: Matsumoto showed that Mongoloid populations were characterized by four Gm haplotypes (Gm ag, Gm axg, Gm ab3st, and Gm afb1b3) and could be divided into two groups: A northern group characterized by high frequencies of the haplotypes Gm ag and Gm ab3st and a low frequency of Gm afb1b3, and a southern group characterized by a high frequency of Gm afb1b3 and low frequencies of Gm ag and Gm ab3st. The Japanese and Northern Han belong to the northern group on the basis of these criteria. In contrast, the Hui and Uygur populations showed five Gm haplotypes: Gm fb1b3, characteristic of Caucasoids, in addition to the four Gm haplotypes observed in Mongoloids. The Uygur population was characterized by a high prevalence of the Caucasoid haplotype Gm fb1b3, whereas the Hui population showed a higher frequency of the Mongoloid haplotype Gm afb1b3. As suggested by Matsumoto, the actual genetic distances shown in table also support the fact that the Hui population is basically Asian with some European admixture (Hui vs. Northern Han and Italian: 0.130 and 0.175), while the Uygur population is basically European with some Asian admixture (Uygur vs. Northern Han and Italian: 0.150 and 0.149).

* The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity by R. Spencer Wells, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree of 61 Eurasian populations, based on Y-chromosome biallelic haplotype frequencies

(Cluster IV: Kazak, Mongolian, Cambodian, Dungan, Taiwanese, Chinese, Korean, Japanese)

Dungan: Hui people everywhere are referred to by Central Asian Turkic speakers and Tajiks as Dungans. This term has a long pedigree as well.

In English and German, the ethnonym "Dungan", in various spelling forms, was attested as early as 1830s, typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, James Prinsep in 1835 mentions Muslim "Túngánis" in "Chinese Tartary". The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860-70s discussed the Dungan revolt in north-western China.

Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for, specifically, the Hui people of Xinjiang.

In the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and its successor countries, the term "Dungans" (дунгане) became the standard name for the descendants of Chinese-speaking Muslims who emigrated to the Russian Empire (mostly to today's Kyrgyzstan and south-eastern Kazakhstan) in the 1870s and 1880s.

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Minnan

Map of Fujian

Minnan (閩南民系; Hoklo (河洛人) commonly refers to those Chaozhou people, Hainanese people and Taiwanese people who claim Han Chinese ancestry from the southern part of Fujian province of China. Large populations of similar background can also be found in Malaysia, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Philippines, Singapore, Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia where they are usually referred to as Hokkien, meaning Fujian in Min Nan language. In Hong Kong's New Territories, "Fukienese" often refers to all Min Nan speakers relocating from Fujian

In Taiwan, the Hoklos are the largest ethnic group (see Demographics of Taiwan). Most Hoklos trace their paternal ancestry to male settlers who migrated to Taiwan from Fujian in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Because about 70% of the population in Taiwan are Hoklo, Taiwanese is often used interchangeably with Hoklo. People who are aware of the multi-ethnic nature of Taiwan recognize the two are not identical, although most people will know by context when this word refers to people from Taiwan and when this word refers specifically to Hoklos.

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan)

* 分子人類學所見歷史上閩越族群的消失 by 李輝

現代福建的人群主要是漢藏語系漢語族齊語支的漢族群體，因為齊語支現在主要分佈在福建，所以也叫閩語支。齊語支是漢語三大語支之一，形成於河南東部到山東一帶，可能是漢語在東夷語的影響下形成的。福建的齊語支起源較早。因為發現閩語中有許\多特徵保留著漢代的漢語音韻樣式，所以可能是漢代來到福建的。如果是這樣的話，就和閩越族被強制移民的時間相吻合了。

東夷是中國古代，尤其是商朝、周朝時期，對東部部族的稱呼，因有九支主要部族又稱九夷。隨著商代的東夷與華夏的融合，東夷後來改為對東方外族的泛稱。其認定範圍也隨之更改。從黃帝時期的山東，到河南一帶, 再到日後秦漢時期的朝鮮半島，日本列島。(朝鮮和韓國認為：現代朝鮮人可能是東夷的一支。) 在《三國志·魏書》中，扶餘、高句麗、沃沮、東濊也是東夷。唐杜佑《通典》將朝鮮、新羅、倭、高句麗、流求等歸入東夷，明代嚴從簡將日本、朝鮮、琉球歸入東夷。

東夷文化是中國最古老的文明之一。東夷文化的許多方面都與中原文明不分伯仲。東夷人是中國最古老文字、弓箭、禮制和金屬的發明和使用者。

Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Yan (燕國) -- He Bei Yu (Hebei Province)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Ba (巴國) / Shu (蜀國) -- Cantonese Language (Cantonese People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Qin / Jin (晉國) -- Guan Zhong Yu -- Northern (Mandarin)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Guan Dong Yu -- Zhong Yuan Yu -- Gan Language
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Guan Dong Yu -- Zhong Yuan Yu -- Hakka Language (Hakka People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qin Dynasty -- Guan Dong Yu -- Zhong Yuan Yu -- Min Language (Minnan, Teochew, Foochow People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Qi (齊國) -- Min Language (Minnan, Teochew, Foochow People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Wu (吳國) -- Shanghainese Language (Shanghainese People)
Zhou Dynasty -- Wu -- Hui Language (Anhui Province)
Zhou Dynasty -- Chu (楚國)-- Xiang Language (Hunan Province)

Qi State

Map of the Qi State (map by KarnRedsun)

Qi (齊國) was a powerful state during the Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States in ancient China. Its capital was Linzi, which is part of the present city of Zibo in Shandong Province.

Qi was founded around 1046 B.C. as one of the many states of the Zhou Dynasty. The first ruler appointed for Qi is Jiang Shang, the most powerful official during that time. The Jiang family ruled Qi for several centuries before it was replaced by the Tian family in 386 BC. In 221 BC, Qi was the last state of pre-Imperial China to be conquered by the State of Qin, the final obstacle which allowed the Qin Dynasty to consolidate the first centralized and imperial empire over China.

History: Western Zhou (1046-771 BC): When the Zhou dynasty founded in 1046BC, King Wu of Zhou assigned the conquered lands as hereditary fiefs to his relatives and ministers. Shandong was given Jiang Ziya, his most important general. Little information survives from this period. King Yi of Zhou (Ji Xie) (865-858) attacked Qi and boiled the duke of Qi in a cauldron. At the time of King Xuan of Zhou (827-782) there was a succession struggle. During this time many of the native Dongyi peoples were absorbed into the Qi state.

Spring and Autumn Period (771-480 BC): In 706 Qi was attacked by the Shan Rong. Qi rose to prominence under Duke Huan of Qi (685-643). He and his minister Guan Zhong strengthened the state by centralizing it. He annexed 35 neighboring states and brought others into submission. In 667 met with the rulers of Lu, Song, Chen and Zheng and was elected leader. Subsequently King Hui of Zhou appointed him 'Ba' or Hegemon. He attacked Wey for supporting a rival of the Zhou king and intervened in the affairs of Lu. In 664 he protected Yan from the Rong. In 659 he protected Xing and in 660, Wey, both from the Chi Di. In 656 he blocked the northward expansion of Chu. At his death, his sons quarreled and the hegemony passed to Jin.

In 632 Qi helped Jin defeat Chu at the Battle of Chengpu. In 589 Qi was defeated by Jin. In 579 the four great powers of Qin (west), Jin (center), Chu (south) and Qi (east) met to declare a truce and limit their military strength. In 546 a similar four-power conference recognized several smaller states as satellites of Qi, Jin and Qin.

Warring States Period (480-221 BC): Early in the period Qi annexed a number of smaller states. Qi was one of the first states to patronize scholars. In 532 the Tian (田) clan destroyed several rival families and came to dominate the state. In 485 the Tian killed the ducal heir and fought several rival clans. In 481 the Tian chief killed a puppet duke, most of the ruler's family and a number of rival chiefs. He took control of most of the state and left the Duke with only the capital of Linzi and the area around Mount Tai. In 386 the Tian family replaced the Jiang family as dukes. In 221 Qi was the last of the warring states to be conquered by Qin, thereby putting an end to the wars and uniting China under the Qin Dynasty.

Eastern Barbarians

Gui (鬹) from Dawenkou culture

Dongyi (東夷) was a collective term for people in Eastern China and in the east of China. People referred to as Dongyi vary across the ages.

Culture: Dongyi culture was one of the oldest neolithic cultures in China. Some Chinese scholars extend the historical use of Dongyi to prehistoric times, according to this belief, the neolithic culture correlates to Houli culture, Beixin culture, Dawenkou culture, Longshan culture and Yueshi culture, five evolutionary phases. Deliang He, thinks that Dongyi culture used to be one of the leading cultures in neolithic China.

The writing system of Dongyi was one of the oldest writing systems in neolithic China. There are opinions that the 20 pictogram characters discovered in a Dongyi tomb (山东莒县大汶口墓葬) in Shangdong indictates some of the characters found, like “旦、鉞(钺)、斤、皇、封、酒、拍、昃”, are still used in Chinese characters.

There are also opinions that Dongyi people were the inventor of arrows. Some classic Chinese history records like Zuo Zhuan, Shuowen Jiezi, Classic of Rites, all have some similar records about this. The legendary god of archery in Chinese mythology, Houyi, could also be a Dongyi leader.

Based on archeology findings, Dongyi people's ancestral worship totem is bird-shaped.

Post-Qin Usages: The more "China" expanded, the further east the term "Dongyi" was applied to. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian uses the term "Manyi" (蠻夷), but not "Dongyi". It puts the section of "Xinanyi (southwestern Yi) liezhuan (biographies)", but not "Dongyi liezhuan". The Book of Han does not put this section either but calls a Dongye (濊) chief in the Korean Peninsula as Dongyi. The Book of Later Han puts the section of "Dongyi liezhuan (東夷列伝)" and covers Buyeo, Yilou, Goguryeo, Eastern Okjeo, Hui, Samhan and Wa, in other words, eastern Manchuria, Korea, Japan and some other islands. The Book of Jin positioned Dongyi inside the section of "Siyi" (barbarians in four directions) along with "Xirong", "Nanman" and "Beidi". The Book of Sui, the Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang adopt the section of "Dongyi" and covers eastern Manchuria, Korea, Japan and optionally Sakhalin and Taiwan. During the Song Dynasty, the official history books replaced Dongyi with Waiguo (外國) and Waiyi (外夷).

Ancient DNA from Shandong and Japan

* Molecular Genetic Analysis of Remains of a 2,000-year-old Human Population in China-and Its Relevance for the Origin of the Modern Japanese Population by H. Oota, et al. (1999)

Abstract: We extracted DNA from the human remains excavated from the Yixi site (approximately 2,000 years before the present) in the Shandong peninsula of China and, through PCR amplification, determined nucleotide sequences of their mitochondrial D-loop regions. Nucleotide diversity of the ancient Yixi people was similar to those of modern populations. Modern humans in Asia and the circum-Pacific region are divided into six radiation groups, on the basis of the phylogenetic network constructed by means of 414 mtDNA types from 1, 298 individuals. We compared the ancient Yixi people with the modern Asian and the circum-Pacific populations, using two indices: frequency distribution of the radiation groups and genetic distances among populations. Both revealed that the closest genetic relatedness is between the ancient Yixi people and the modern Taiwan Han Chinese. The Yixi people show closer genetic affinity with Mongolians, mainland Japanese, and Koreans than with Ainu and Ryukyu Japanese and less genetic resemblance with Jomon people and Yayoi people, their predecessors and contemporaries, respectively, in ancient Japan."

* Genetic Structure of a 2,500-Year-Old Human Population in China and Its Spatiotemporal Changes by Li Wang, et al.

A Neighbor-joining Tree for 19 Human Populations

Result: The smallest genetic distance for the present-day Linzi population was that from the Mongols, followed by those from mainland Japanese and Koreans. Surprisingly, the three smallest genetic distances for the 2,000-year-old Linzi population were from the present-day central Asian populations: the Kirghiz (Sary-Tash), followed by the Kazakh and the Uighurs. Even more surprisingly, the three smallest genetic distances for the 2,500-year-old Linzi population were from the Turkish, Icelander, and Finnish, rather than from the east Asian populations.

* Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Yayoi Period Human Skeletal Remains from the Doigahama Site by Kazunari Igawa, et al.

Excerpt: The 2500-year-old Linzi population (group I: 15%, group II: 6%, group III: 3%, group IV: 65%, group V: 3%, group VI: 9%) resembled the 2000–2300-year-old Doigahama Yayoi population with respect to the high frequency for group IV. It was suggested that there were phylogenetically similar populations in China and Japan during the ancient period, from 2500 to 2000 years ago.

Geographicl Distribution of HVI Sequence Types Observed in Doigahama Yayoi Specimens

Individual Number	Sharing Populations (number of individuals)
1, 124, 1601	Vietnam (1)
1301, 1405, 1406, 1903, 88A	Thai (15), China Nei Mongol (11), China Xinjiang (11), China Hainan (10), China Yunnan (8), Vietnam (7), China Guizhou (6), Russia Buryat (6), Japan Okinawa (4), China Shandong (3), China Shanghai (2), Indonesia (1), China Bouyei (1), China Dai (1), Taiwan Yami (1) and other China (2)
914, 1604	China Guangxi (4), China Nei Mongol (4), China Guizhou (2), China Xinjiang (2), Taiwan Chinese (1), China Hubei (1), and other China (1)
1904	China Xinjiang (1)
1305	China Yunnan (7), China Shandong (4), Japan mainland (3), China Hainan (3), Thai (3), China Liaoning (2), China Guangxi (2), Russia Nivhi (2), South Korea (1), Taiwan Chinese (1), Indonesia (1) and other China (4)
913	Not found in East-Asian Population

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Jilin

Map of Jilin

Jilin (吉林), is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country (東北; Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning). Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west. The name was transliterated to Kirin before standardization to pinyin.

The name "Jilin" probably originates from Girin ula, a Manchu term meaning "along the river"; this was transcribed into Jilin wula (吉林烏拉) in Chinese, then shortened to Jilin. The literal meaning of the Chinese characters for "Jilin" is "auspicious forest".

In ancient times Jilin was inhabited by various peoples, notably the Mohe and the Wùjí (勿吉). It also formed a part of the Goguryeo kingdom. The kingdom of Balhae was established in the area from 698 to 926 AD. The region then fell successively under the domination of the Khitan Liao Dynasty, the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, and the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, much of the area was under the control of the General of Jilin, whose area of control extended to the Sea of Japan to encompass much of what is Russia's Primorsky Krai today. Immigration of Han Chinese was strictly controlled.

However, after the Primorsky Krai area was ceded to Russia in 1860, the Qing government began to open the area up to Han Chinese migrants, most of whom came from Shandong. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Han Chinese had become the dominant ethnic group of the region. In 1932, the area was incorporated into Manchukuo, a puppet state set up by Japan, and Changchun (then called Hsinking), capital of Jilin today, was made the capital of Manchukuo. After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the region, together with the rest of northeastern China, was handed to the communists by the Soviet Union.

Manchuria (滿洲) is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria either falls entirely within China, or is divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast China.

This region is the traditional homeland of the Xianbei, Khitan, and Jurchen, who built several dynasties in northern China. The region is also the home of the Manchus, after whom Manchuria is named. Beginning in the 17th century, the Manchus ruled China until the collapse of the Qing Dynasty (清朝) in 1911.

Taiwan Under Qing Dynasty Rule

The Manchu Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan from 1683 to 1895. Manchu Qing in 1683 sent an army led by general Shi Lang and annexed Taiwan.

Qing Emperor Kangxi annexed Taiwan because he wanted to remove the remaining resistance forces against the Qing Dynasty. However, Qing did not want to develop Taiwan over aggressively as this may encourage any potential resistance force to build a base in Taiwan. Accordingly, the early Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan passively. Taiwan was governed as part of Fujian province at the time, only becoming a separate province later.

There were more than a hundred rebellions during the early Qing Dynasty reign. The frequency of rebellions, riots, and civil strife in Qing Dynasty Taiwan is evoked by the common saying "every three years an uprising; every five years a rebellion" (三年一反、五年一亂).

Manchu writing at the Taiwan Confucian Temple. Inscription on the Dismounting stele reads: "Civil and military officials, soldiers and citizens, all dismount from their horses here"

Northeast China

Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang

Northeast China has a total population of about 107,400,000 people, accounting for 8% of China’s total population. The majority of the population in the Northeast is now Han Chinese, whose ancestors came only recently in the 19th and 20th centuries in a population movement called "Chuang Guandong" (literally: To escape the hardship by going beyond the pass) or (Rush to Northeast China).

Manchus form a significant minority, and have been almost completely assimilated into the Han Chinese; the Manchu language is almost extinct, and many Han Chinese in Northeast China, as well as the rest of China, can claim some Manchu ancestry. Other major ethnic groups include the Mongols, Koreans, and the Huis.

Chuang Guandong (闖關東, literally "Crashing into the east (of the fortress)" The "fortress" in this case being Shanhaiguan), means the rush to Manchuria of the Han Chinese, especially from Shandong Peninsula, during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Previously this region was outside China proper, but sometimes under the control, or at least within the sphere of influence, of the dynasty ruling China. During the first two centuries of the reign of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China, it was closed to settlement by Han Chinese. The region is now known as Northeast China, and has an overwhelmingly Han population.

* Y-chromosome Evidence for Common Ancestry of Three Chinese Populations with a High Risk of Esophageal Cancer by H Huang, et al.

Abstract: High rates of esophageal cancer (EC) are found in people of the Henan Taihang Mountain, Fujian Minnan, and Chaoshan regions of China. Historical records describe great waves of populations migrating from north-central China (the Henan and Shanxi Hans) through coastal Fujian Province to the Chaoshan plain. Although these regions are geographically distant, we hypothesized that EC high-risk populations in these three areas could share a common ancestry. Accordingly, we used 16 East Asian-specific Y-chromosome biallelic markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms; Y-SNPs) and six Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (Y-STR) loci to infer the origin of the EC high-risk Chaoshan population (CSP) and the genetic relationship between the CSP and the EC high-risk Henan Taihang Mountain population (HTMP) and Fujian population (FJP). The predominant haplogroups in these three populations are O3*, O3e*, and O3e1, with no significant difference between the populations in the frequency of these genotypes. Frequency distribution and principal component analysis revealed that the CSP is closely related to the HTMP and FJP, even though the former is geographically nearer to other populations (Guangfu and Hakka clans). The FJP is between the CSP and HTMP in the principal component plot. The CSP, FJP and HTMP are more closely related to Chinese Hans than to minorities, except Manchu Chinese, and are descendants of Sino-Tibetans, not Baiyues. Correlation analysis, hierarchical clustering analysis, and phylogenetic analysis (neighbor-joining tree) all support close genetic relatedness among the CSP, FJP and HTMP. The network for haplogroup O3 (including O3*, O3e* and O3e1) showed that the HTMP have highest STR haplotype diversity, suggesting that the HTMP may be a progenitor population for the CSP and FJP. These findings support the potentially important role of shared ancestry in understanding more about the genetic susceptibility in EC etiology in high-risk populations and have implications for determining the molecular basis of this disease.

The Two-dimensional Map of Y-SNP Frequencies

(2. Fujian EC high-risk population, 3. Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population, 11. Henan Han, 15. Guangzhou Han, 23. Sichuan Han)

1, Chaoshan EC high-risk population; 2, Fujian EC high-risk population; 3, Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population; 4, Hebei Han; 5, Liaoning Han; 6, Xinjiang Han; 7, Shangdong Han; 8, Gansu Han; 9, Shanxi Han; 10, Neimeng Han; 11, Henan Han; 12, Hakka Han; 13, Hunan Han; 14, Hubei Han; 15, Guangzhou Han; 16, Zhejiang Han; 17, Jiangxi Han; 18, Shanghai Han; 19, Anhui Han; 20, Jiangsu Han; 21, Yunnan Han; 22, Guangxi Han; 23, Sichuan Han. 4–11 refer to Northern Han and 12–23 to Southern Han.

The Two-dimensional Graphs of Y-STR Frequencies

(2. Fujian EC high-risk population, 3. Henan Taihan Mountain EC high-risk population, 16. Manchu)

(4. Fujian Han, 10. Dongbei Han, 13. Tibetan, 18, Naxi, 14, Uygur; 15, Krigiz )

The three EC high-risk populations and Manchu form 2 clusters; the three Northern Han (labeled 10–12) and five Southern Han populations (labeled 5–9) form another group. The remaining populations are scattered. 1, Chaoshan EC high-risk population; 2, Fujian EC high-risk population; 3, Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population; 4, Fujian Han; 5, Anhui Han; 6, Yunnan Han; 7, Henan Han; 8, Zhejiang Han; 9, Guangzhou Han; 10, Dongbei Han; 11, Beijing Han; 12, Tianjing Han; 13, Tibetan; 14, Uygur; 15, Krigiz; 16, Manchu; 17, Shui; 18, Naxi; 19, Zhuang. 4–9 refer to Southern Hans, 10–12 to Northern Hans, 13–17 to Northern minority nationalities, 18–19 to Southern minority nationalities.

Geographic Distribution of the Three Studied EC High-risk Populations

* Genetic Polymorphisms of 17 Y-chromosomal Short Tandem Repeat Loci in Atayal Population of Taiwan (2009) by Fang-Chin Wu, et al.

Neighbor-joining Tree

(Atayal, Korean, Taiwanese, Japanese, Minnan, Northeast Han Chinese)

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent Sagart

The An Settlement of Taiwan With the MP and TK Migrations

[a]: The pre-Austronesians, from NE China, expand southward along the SE China seaboard in the 5th and early 4th millennia BC: they cultivate rice, foxtail millet, exploit marine resources, practice tooth evulsion. [b]: the Nanri and Pingtan islands, from which the top of Mt Xueshan (3884 m., at center of 200-km radius visibility circle) can be seen, are reached. From there one group crosses to Taiwan c. 3500 BC, while [c] the rest continues expanding in a SW direction towards the Pearl River Delta. [1]: location of earliest An (PAnspeaking) settlements on Taiwan. [2]: location of Pituish, [3] location of Enemish, [4] location of Walu-Siwaish, [5] location of Muish, [6] Tai-Kadai migration, [7] Malayo-Polynesian migration, c. 2000 BC.

Excerpt: I have argued elsewhere (Sagart, in press, b) that the pre-Austronesians spoke a language related to Sino-Tibetan, and that they reached Taiwan from a location in NE China where millet and rice were cultivated, and where ritual evulsion of the upper lateral incisors in boys and girls was practiced. The eastern China seaboard region north of the Yangzi estuary, from north Jiangsu to north Shandong, is the one area in East Asia where the distribution of these three traits overlaps in the period before the arrival of the Austronesians in Taiwan: thus both rice and millet were cultivated in Xihe in north Shandong (Wright 2004) c. 8000 BP and in Longqiuzhuang in the lower Huai basin c. 7000-5000 BP. Tooth evulsion is attested from 6500 BP on in Shandong and north Jiangsu (Han and Nakahashi 1996). We may surmise that before they reached Taiwan, the pre-Austronesians were expanding southward along the coastal plains of central-eastern China in Jiangsu, Zhejiang and north Fujian. We can expect that archaeological sites with rice, Setaria, tooth evulsion, and a technology intermediate between the Dawenkou culture of north-east China and Ta-Pen-K'eng of Taiwan will eventually appear there.

If this scenario is correct, it is likely that the passage to Taiwan did not exhaust the pre-An population of the Fujian coast. More likely, this population continued expanding along the coast in a south-westerly direction towards the Pearl River delta, even after a group of them had crossed to Taiwan. Their archaeological traces SW of Fujian are perhaps seen in the Pearl river delta, although direct evidence of agriculture there has so far not appeared; Hedang in the Pearl River delta, with tooth evulsion (Higham 1996:84), c. 3000-2000 BC, may be one such site. In Taiwan, Tsang (in press) describes the newly excavated site of Nan-kuan-li near Tainan in south-west Taiwan, where a team led by him recently discovered a neolithic culture having rice, millet, and practicing ritual tooth ablation around 5000-4500 BP. In the same paper he argues that the Ta-Pen-K'eng culture, as seen in Nan-kuan-li near Tainan, "has close affinities with the Neolithic cultures of Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta". I disagree with Tsang when he concludes that "The Pearl River Delta of Kuangtung is mostprobably the source area of the Tapenkeng Culture in Taiwan". I think it more likely that both cultures are descended from a common precursor on the Fujian coast. Pearl River delta sites having affinities to Taiwan TPK like Hedang are also probably too early and too far east to be ancestral to the Tai-Kadai-speaking cultures.

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Korean

Map of Korea

Koreans are believed to be descendents of Altaic-or proto-Altaic-speaking tribes, linking them with Mongolians, Tungusics, Turkics, and other Central Asians. Archaeological evidence suggest proto-Koreans were Altaic-language-speaking migrants from south-central Siberia, who populated ancient Korea in successive waves from the neolithic age to the Bronze Age.

Recent advances in the study of polymorphisms in the human Y-chromosome have produced evidence to suggest that the Korean people have a very long history as a distinct, mostly endogamous ethnic group, as male Koreans display a high frequency of Y-chromosomes belonging to Haplogroup O2b that are more or less specific to Korean populations.

Most Koreans and part-Koreans still display phenotypes suggesting Altaic origins. These features include higher cheekbones, and the Mongolian spot, a genetic predisposition for a bluish birthmark on the lower body which remains until early childhood; however, the Mongolian spot is also extremely common among non-Altaic people of Chinese, African, Native American, or East Indian ancestry.

Significant regional differences exist.Within South Korea, the most important regional difference is between the Gyeongsang region, embracing Gyeongsangbuk-do and Gyeongsangnam-do provinces in the southeast, and the Jeolla region, embracing Jeollabuk-do and Jeollanam-do provinces in the southwest. The two regions, separated by the Jiri Massif, nurture a rivalry said to reach back to the Three Kingdoms Period (57 to 668 AD) when the kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla struggled for control of the peninsula. Observers noted that interregional marriages are rare.

Genetics: Korean males display a high frequency of, Haplogroup O2b* (P49), a subclade of possibly Manchurian origin, and O3 (M122), a common Y-DNA haplogroup among East Asians in general. Haplogroup O2b* occurs approximately 14% to 33%of all Korean males, while haplogroup O3 has been found in approximately 40% of sampled Korean males. The origins of Korean Haplogroup O3 are thought to be diverse, with some of them having expanded from Manchuria with Haplogroup O2b and some of them having expanded from southern China with rice agriculturists such as the Hmong people.

Korean males also exhibit a moderate frequency of Haplogroup C3. Haplogroup C3 is thought to be the original inhabitants of the area related to the Nivkh people.

Koreans in China: Throughout history, due to the close interactions between Korea and China, some degree of population movements have always occurred between the two neighboring countries. Several ancient Korean kingdoms, like Buyeo, Goguryeo, Balhae existed in the current territory of China. There were also written records of Korean migrations in the early Qing Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, and earlier. The majority of early Korean populations in China had assimilated with Chinese society. The current Korean population in China is mainly descended from migrants who came between 1860 and 1945. In the 1860s, a series of natural disasters struck Korea, leading to disastrous famines. Along with the Qing dynasty's loosening of border controls and acceptance of external migration into Northeast China, this pushed many Koreans to migrate.

Koreans in Taiwan: Though a few Korean fishermen lost at sea during the Joseon Dynasty settled in Taiwan, they never formed a significant population. Even with the 1910 onset of Japanese rule in Korea, Korean migration to Taiwan was minimal; it was only in the aftermath of the March 1st Movement and the associated economic difficulties it caused that Korean migration to Taiwan became a mass phenomenon. Most settled in Keelung and other port cities, where they made a living by fishing. After the end of Japanese rule in Taiwan, an estimated 1,300 Korean soldiers serving with the Imperial Japanese Army and 2,000 civilians organised their own repatriation to the Korean peninsula, and by 1946, only 400-500 Koreans were recorded as living in Taiwan.

Joseon (July 1392 – October 1897) (also Chosŏn, Choson, Chosun), was a Korean sovereign state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo Kingdom at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul and the kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded. Joseon was the last royal and later imperial dynasty of Korean history. It was the longest ruling Confucian dynasty.

During its reign, Joseon consolidated its absolute rule over Korea, encouraged the entrenchment of Korean Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society, imported and adapted Chinese culture, and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, science, literature, and technology. However, the dynasty was severely weakened during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, when invasions by the neighboring Japan and Qing nearly overran the peninsula, leading to the kingdom becoming a Qing tributary state in 1636 and to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy for which the country became known as the Hermit Kingdom.

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

(Taiwan (Han) clusters with Mongolia, Korea)

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Japanese

Map of Japan (map by Connormah)

The Japanese people are the dominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries are referred to as nikkeijin (日系人). The term "Japanese people" may also be used in some contexts to refer to a locus of ethnic groups including the Yamato people, Ainu people, and Ryukyuans.

A recent study by Michael F. Hammer has shown genetic similarity to a variety of populations in Asia. This and other genetic studies have also claimed that Y-chromosome patrilines crossed from Asian mainland into the Japanese Archipelago, where they currently comprise a significant fraction of the extant male lineages of the Japanese population. These patrilines seem to have experienced extensive genetic admixture with the long-established Jōmon period populations of Japan.

A recent study for the origins of Japanese people is based on the "dual structure model" proposed by Hanihara in 1991. He concludes that modern Japanese lineages consist of the original Jōmon people and immigrants from the Yayoi period. The Jōmon people originated in southeast Asia, moving to the Japanese Archipelago in the Palaeolithic period. In past several decades, the Japanese people was proposed to relate to Yi, Hani and Dai people based on folk customs or genetic evidences.

Another southeast Asian group moved to northeastern Asia. The population of this group increased in the Neolithic period and some moved to the archipelago during the Yayoi period. The miscegenation prevailed in Kyūshū, Shikoku and Honshū islands but not in Okinawa and Hokkaido, respectively represented by the Ryukyuan and Ainu people. This theory was based on the study of the development of human bones and teeth. The comparison of mitochondrial DNA between Jōmon people and medieval Ainu also supports the theory.

Masatoshi Nei opposed the "dual structure model" and alleged that the genetic distance data shows the origin of Japanese was in northeast Asia, moving to Japan perhaps more than thirty thousand years ago.

* Formosa Betrayed by George H. Kerr

Excerpt: A seesaw conflict between this island world and the continent has been in evidence for at least two thousand years. The earliest Chinese notices of Formosa indicate that it was sparsely settled by fierce non-Chinese barbarians long before the Chinese themselves pushed southward from their homeland in the Yellow River basin to settle along the Fukien coast. These savages of a southern origin crossed the channel from time to time to plunder coastal villages or to seek a barter trade. The Chinese in turn sent out expeditions to punish them or to explore the distant island shores. In time a small settlement of Chinese fishermen appeared in the Pescadores but there were no significant attempts to displace the Formosan aborigines or to found permanent Chinese settlements on Formosa until the way had been prepared by others.

Japanese merchants and pirates appear to have been the first to establish small immigrant villages. For centuries they were sailing past Formosa to the China ports, to Southeast Asia and the Indies. In times of storm or when in need of supply or ship's repair they took shelter in the lagoons and inlets along Formosa's western shore. At last a considerable Japanese settlement (which they named Takasago) came into being at a point not far distant from present-day Tainan.

Then came the Spanish and the Dutch. When Japan's great dictator Hideyoshi menaced Luzon, late in the 1500's, Spain's Viceroy at Manila proposed to occupy Formosa. In 1626 Spanish forts and missions were established at Keelung and Tamsui on the island's northern tip. Meanwhile the Dutch had reached the Pescadores, seeking a naval base from which to harass Portuguese trade at Macao and to interfere with the Spanish shipping near the Philippines. In 1623 they abandoned Makung and moved to Formosa proper, founding Anping and the present-day city of Tainan. They sometimes quarreled with the Japanese nearby, but Takasago village faded rapidly after the home government adopted its Seclusion policies forbidding Japanese to travel overseas. In 1642 the Dutch Protestants drove the Spanish Catholics from their narrow foothold at the north, and for twenty years thereafter held the island without serious challenge.

This might well be called Formosa's "European half-century," for the colony prospered as the Dutch created Formosa's first government, established schools and missions for the aborigines, opened up the countryside for agriculture and sent missionaries far back into the mountains. Thus in the second quarter of the 17th century European arms and administration opened the way for Chinese immigration. At that time Ming China was torn by civil rebellion and pressed hard by enemies from beyond the Great Wall. Everywhere local warlords and imperial agents extorted unreasonable taxes and tribute from the common people in an effort to support a tottering central government. Ignoring strict official edicts banning emigration, villagers, farmers and fishermen began to leave the country. The government considered them traitors, renegades and outlaws. Thousands went overseas to Java and Malaya, Borneo, Siam and the Philippines. Tens of thousands made their way across the water barrier to Formosa, so conveniently near - too near, as they were soon to learn.

These "outlaws" were the ancestors of the majority of people living on Formosa today. They were hardy pioneers, bold and adventurous. Those who sought new land beyond the limits of Dutch administration were on a true frontier; their contemporaries in faraway America provide a close parallel if one is needed to illustrate the situation. Going into their new fields they had to carry weapons as well as farm-tools, and they dwelt within stockades. The aborigines contested every advance into the hills, and the Chinese newcomers, on their part, considered the savages to be subhuman, or "non-people" who should be driven back into the highest mountains if they could not be exterminated in the foothills ....

Taiwan under Japanese Rule

Map of the Japanese Empire (Map by Bamse)

The Japanese colonial period, Japanese rule in the context of Taiwan's history, refers to the period between 1895 and 1945 during which Taiwan was a Japanese colony. The expansion into Taiwan was a part of Japan's general policy of southward expansion during the late 19th century.

As Taiwan was Japan's first overseas colony, Japanese intentions were to turn the island into a showpiece "model colony". As a result, much effort was made to improve the island's economy, industry, public works and change its culture.

The relative failures of immediate post-World War II rule by the Kuomintang led to a certain degree of nostalgia amongst the older generation of Taiwanese who experienced both. This has affected, to some degree, issues such as national identity, ethnic identity and the Taiwan independence movement.

* The Biological Evidence of the San-pau-chi People and Their Affinities by Hsiu-Man Lin

Excerpts: For the study of ancient DNA, only six individuals (G17 II B1 – 138 bps, H15 II B8 – 133 bps, H16 II B6 – 178 bps, H16 II B8 – 176 bps, H17 II B3 – 211 bps, and J17 II B4 – 154 bps) were used for distance analysis because of the longer length of the preserved portions of their HV1 sequences and it reveals a close relationship between the SPC sample and Japanese. However, this result should be taken with extreme cautions given the tiny sample size and sequence length, and the fact the ancient DNA results for SPC could not be independently confirmed. None (0 of n=12) of the SPC sample has the 9-bp deletion, a typical haplogroup for Polynesians. Although most of the positive PCR re-amplifications show negative reactions for restriction analyses of A, B, ,C, D, F, H, and M, six individuals were assigned to A (n=2), C (n=2), H (n=1), and M (n=1). Additionally, the rate of successful DNA extraction using teeth was much higher than that by using bones, although they are mostly fragments in terms of successful amplification of the entire HV1 sequence.

In conclusion, the dental evidence in this project seems to suggest a Northern Asian affinity for the SPC people, which is unexpected and varies from previously proposed models of Austronesian dispersals. The ancient DNA evidence is, unfortunately, too poor to clearly support or refute the result from dental analysis. The dental results differ from any of original hypotheses of this project for the role of Taiwan in Austronesian migrations. Interestingly, however, the dental results accord with result from the Hui-Lei-Lee site that the M9a haplotype recovered from the site is most likely of Northern Asian origin (Yan 2006). This does not exclude the possibility that the SPC people are related to Austronesian speakers in the South Pacific. It is evident that there may have been some level of gene flow between the SPC people, mainland Asian, and Oceania according to the sizes of maxillary crown width (which explains the similarity to Tonga) and perhaps the presence of mitochondrial haplogroups A and M (ancestral Asian haplogroups)....

Because the dental morphological study and ancient DNA analyses seem to suggest a Northern Asian affinity for the SPC people, it is proposed here that approximately 2,500 BP, some prehistoric Taiwanese came from Northern Asia. However, the WCTS people, contemporaries of SPC, show a closer relatedness with the Namu from the Hawai’i. Therefore, a simple model of “Out of Taiwan” or “Indigenous Melanesian Origin” cannot explain the whole picture of prehistoric Taiwan. In this circumstance, it seems to indicate that Taiwan in the past may have harbored diverse populations....

The Biological Evidence of the San-Pau-Chu People: Prehistoric Man of Taiwan by Hsiu-Man Lin

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Mongol

Map of Inner Mongolia

The name Mongols specifies one or several ethnic groups largely located now in Mongolia, China, and Russia. A narrow definition includes the Mongols proper (self-designation Monggol), which can be roughly divided into eastern and western Mongols. In a wider sense, the Mongol peoples includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.

The name"Mongol" appeared first in 8th century records of the Chinese Tang dynasty, but then only resurfaced in the 11th century during the rule of the Khitan. At first it was applied to some small and still insignificant tribes in the area of the Onon River. In the 13th century, it grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.

Today, people of Mongol origin live in Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia), Russia, and a few other central Asian countries. The differentiation between tribes and peoples (nationalities) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Bargut (or Barga), Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayid, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Zakhchin (Zakchin), Darkhad, and Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols. Other geographically dispersed Mongol peoples include the Moghol, Hazara, and Aimak in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran.

The Chinese census of 2000 counted 5.8 million Mongols (according to the narrow definition above). Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region, followed by Liaoning province. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two. Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Monguor, Dongxiang, Bonan, and parts of the Yugur. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol nationality, but are recognized as nationalities of their own.

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Some researchers have proposed a link to languages like Tungusic and Turkic, which are often included alongside Mongolic in a hypothetical group called Altaic languages, but evidence for this line of argumentation is rather weak.

Yuan Dynasty

(Map by Ian Kiu)

The Yuan Dynasty (元朝), or Great Yuan Empire (大元帝國) was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division or continuation of the Mongol Empire and as an imperial dynasty of China. In Chinese history, the Yuan Dynasty followed the Song Dynasty and preceded the Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (太祖). Besides Emperor of China, Kublai Khan had also claimed the title of Great Khan, i.e. supremacy over the other Mongol khanates (Chagatai Khanate, Golden Horde, Ilkhanate); however this claim was only truly recognized by the Il-Khanids, who were nevertheless essentially self-governing. Although later emperors of the Yuan Dynasty were recognized by the three virtually independent western khanates as their nominal suzerains, they each continued their own separate developments. The Yuan is sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan, as the Mongol Emperors of the Yuan held the title of Great Khan of all Mongol Khanates.

* Genetic Polymorphisms at HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 Loci in Han Population of Xi’an City in China by Chunmei Shen, et al.

Dendrogram Constructed by the Neighbor-joining Method Showing the Relationship Between Han Population with Other 15 Populations Based on the Allele Arequencies of HLA-DRB1 Locus

(Han Inner Mongolia, Li, Japanese; Han Fujian, Mongolian Inner Mongolia, Ewenki)

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Miao

The Miao (苗族) are a linguistically and culturally related group of people recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China as one of the 55 official minority groups. Miao is a Chinese term and does not reflect the self-designations of the component sub-groups, which include (with some variant spellings) Hmong/Mong, Hmu, A Hmao,and Kho (Qho) Xiong. The Miao live primarily in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. Some members of the Miao sub-groups, most notably Hmong/Mong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand).

Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples often with the connotation of "barbarian." This former meaning has not kept members of the modern nationality from self-identifying as Miao.

Archaeological Discoveries: Many Miao scholars believe the Dawenkou Culture to be Miao. They cite the pottery designs found in the tombs as examples. The designs are very similar to present day Miao embroideries. Combine this with the presence of Miao in Shangdong suggests the Miao's origin is not the south but the mouth of the Yellow River. It would also support the Miao's claim to the Shang Dynasty since Shangdong is part of Shang.

Lady Dai found in Tomb no. 1 at Mawangdui is believed by many Miao as a Miao woman. They cite the T-shaped banners draped over her coffin as an example of Miao burial practices and beliefs. This dispel the belief that the sinicization of the Miao was by force or even sinicized during the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang is a general under Xiang Yu meaning he commanded Miao troops and they are his base of power. When the dispute with Xiang Yu broke out Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo and Fan Kuai saved Liu Bang's life. This meant Liu Bang's support among the Miao was strong. The Han-Chu contention was not about a struggle between two groups of people but between two individuals. This explains why Miao beliefs and culture flourished during the Western Han. It would also mean that the Han nationality began when the Miao and Huaxia came together as one. The present day Miao may be the remnant of those who fled when Qin conquered Chu. They left before peace came and never returned. It would explain why Chu is acknowledged by the Miao as a Miao Kingdom but not Han given Liu Bang's base of power was former Chu in the South.

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

History of the Miao People

Map of the Chu State (map by KarnRedsun)

Contact with the Huaxia: In China, the first recorded Miao kingdom was called Jiuli, and its ruler or rulers, had the title Chiyou (in Chinese) or Txiv Yawg (in White Hmong) or Txiv Yawg (in Mong Leng). Chiyou means grandfather, and is a title equal to, but no less than, emperor. Chiyou's ancestors are thought to be the Liangzhu people. Jiuli was said to have jurisdiction over nine tribes and 81 clans.

History According to Chinese Legend: According to Chinese legend, the Miao who descended from the Jiuli tribe led by Chiyou (蚩尤) were defeated at the Battle of Zhuolu (涿鹿, a defunct prefecture on the border of present provinces of Hebei and Liaoning) by the military coalition of Huang Di (黃帝) and Yan Di, leaders of the Huaxia (華夏) tribe as the two tribes struggled for supremacy of the Yellow River valley. According to legend, the battle, said to have taken place in the 26th century BC, was fought under heavy fog. The Huaxia, who possessed the compass, was able to defeat the tribe of Chiyou. (In an alternative account, Chiyou was never defeated and has been worshiped as god. It is generally accepted that Chiyou has been worshiped by succeeding dynasties regardless of their ethnic origins. This further corroborates the possibility that the defeat was not a fact but a likely story rewritten to legitimize the Huaxia history for later Han Chinese dynasties such as Chin or Han.)

After general population movement toward south, southwest, and southeast (due in part to influx of northern and western groups such as Huaxia and Donghu), the tribe of Chiyou split into two smaller splinter tribes, the Miao and the Li (Chinese: 黎; pinyin: lí). The Miao continuously moving southwest and Li southeast as the Huaxia race, later known as Han Chinese, expanded southward. During the course of Chinese history, the Miao were sometimes regarded as "barbarians" by the increasingly technologically and culturally advanced Han Chinese. Some members of the Miao and Li tribes were assimilated into the Han Chinese during the Zhou Dynasty. (Recent DNA studies suggest that the movement of ethnic groups such as Miao in ancient East Asia is far more complex than this unsubstantiated "historical" accounts.)

Another version of the story says that the tribe split three ways. It is said Chiyou had 3 sons, and after the fall of Jiuli, his eldest son led some people south, his middle son led some people north, and his youngest son remained in Zhuolu and assimilated into the Huaxia culture. Those who were led to the south established the San-Miao nation. Perhaps due to this splitting into multiple groups, many Far Eastern people regard Chiyou as their ancestors, and by the same token, many question the ethnicity of Chiyou as exclusively Mong or otherwise. In some circles of thought, the Koreans also regard Chiyou as an ethnic ancestor. Furthermore, under the present ethnic unification policy of the PRC, Chiyou is now also regarded as one of China's forefathers alongside the ethnic Han ancestors, Huangdi and Yandi. The recent official attempt (mainly supported by PRC) is strongly motivated by political consideration and is generally considered troubling to other East Asian countries such as Korea, Mongolia, and Japan.

History According to Miao Legend: According to the Miao burial ritual 'Show the Way', Miao history can be trace to as early as the Shang Dynasty. After the fall of Shang to Zhou, Chu was the next and last known Miao kingdom. When Chu fell to Qin, the great migration that scattered the Miao began. Many remained and started the great revolt that helped found the Han Dynasty under Liu Bang. Miao culture greatly influence the Western Han. Descendants of Chu speaks the Miao, Wu, Xiang, Hui and Yue languages.

Qin and Han Dynasties: If the Miao's claim to Chu is true, the Miao and Huaxia are very similar during this period. They have lived along side each other for thousands of years. Chu was the largest and most powerful of all the kingdom during the warring states period. Whom ever controls Chu is emperor given the large population, vast fertile land along the Yangtze, and abundant resources from the sea.

When Qin conquered Chu he became emperor but the people of Chu did not see the new king as one of their own. Qin's harsh legalist system caused many Miao to fleed into the higher evelation. When Qin Shi Huangdi died, the people of Chu lead by Xiang Liang rose up and revolted restoring Chu for a time. After Qin was conquered, Xiang Liang's nephew Xiang Yu became emperor but his inability to govern led to the Chu-Han contention. When Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu, he became emperor and the Han Dynasty was born.

Liu Bang was a general under Xiang Yu until the Chu-Han contention. It means he was considered a Chu by the Miao when he became emperor. The remaining Miao saw Liu Bang as one of them and accepted his overlordship.

The Miao played an important role in Liu Bang's rise to power. Liu Bang was not of royal descent and had no established base of power. The Miao served in Liu Bang's army and Xiao He was his main lieutenant. Xiao He built Liu Bang's power base from scratch. During Western Han, Miao/Chu culture influence every part of the Han's daily life.

The Miao who fled were left alone because they were not seen as a threat compared to the Wu Hu given the majority of the Miao became part of Han. It would explained the lack of official information on the fleeing Miao until the later dynasties. This group would carry the Miao name into the present. The descendants of the Miao who became Han currently speak the Wu, Xiang, and Hui Chinese dialects and Yue language.

From this period forward, 'Miao' in recorded Chinese records referrs only to the Miao who fled. The term "Miao" was first used by the Han Chinese in pre-Qin times, i.e. before 221 BC, for designating non-Han Chinese groups in the south. It was often used in the combinations "nanmiao", "miaomin", "youmiao" and "sanmiao" (三苗).

Ming and Qing Dynasties: During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911) 'miao' and 'man' were both used, the second possibly to designate the Yao (傜) people. The Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties could neither fully assimilate nor control the aboriginal people. As a result, the policy of "using barbarians to rule barbarians" (以夷制夷) was employed. Furthermore, a counterpart wall to the Great Wall in the south was erected to protect and divide the Chinese from the 'southern barbarians'. Politically and militarily, the Hmong continued to be a stone in the shoe of the Chinese empire. The Hmong were more than a match against the Chinese since the latter's military was stretched across China defending against northern invaders. The Chinese had to fall back on political means to ensnare Hmong people, they created multiple competing positions of substantial prestige for Hmong people to participate and assimilate into the Chinese government system. During the Ming and Qing times, the official position of Kaitong was created in Indochina. The Hmong would employ the use of the Kiatong government structure until the 1900s when they entered into French colonial politics in Indochina.

Southern Barbarians

Nanman (南蠻; literally "southern 'barbarians'") were aboriginal tribes who lived in southwestern China. They may have been related to the Sanmiao, dated to around the 3rd century BC. The Nanman were multiple ethnic groups including the Miao, the Kinh, the Thai, and some Tibeto-Burman groups such as the Bai. There was never a single polity that united these people. During the Three Kingdoms period, the Nanman alliance fought against the Chinese incursion under the leadership of Meng Huo. After being captured and released no fewer than seven times, he finally submitted to Zhuge Liang.

During the Tang Dynasty, the Miao (Hmong) ceased as a major non-Chinese group except in the province of Yunnan where they were ruled by the six "Zhao" (詔). The southernmost, known as Mengshezhao (蒙舍詔) or Nanzhao (南詔), united all six Zhaos and founded the first independent Nanman state during the early 8th century. The royalties were thought to be the Bai people. Nanzhao regularly paid tributes through the head of military district Jiannan Jiedushi (劍南節度使). When the Tang Dynasty gradually declined, Nanman gained more independence, but was assimilated by later dynasties. However, some of Nanzhao's cultural influence was carried south due to its location.

* The Power of Language Over the Past: Tai settlement and Tai Linguistics in Southern China and Northern Vietnam by Jerold A. Edmondson

O Subclades

* Ethnic Related Selection for an ADH Class I Variant Within East Asia by Li H, et al.

Principal Component Analysis Plot Based on the ADH1B Haplotypes Frequency Data

(CHT: Minnan Taiwanese, HMQ: Black Hmong, MWW: White Hmong, KOR: Korean, JPN: Japanese, CHS: Cantonese)

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Guangxi

Guangxi (or Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; 廣西壯族自治區) is a Zhuang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China.

Its location in southern China, along its border with Vietnam, and mountainous terrain, has made it one of the border frontiers of Chinese civilization. Even into the 20th century it was considered an open, wild territory. The current name "Guang" itself means "expanse", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in 226 AD. It was given provincial level status during the Yuan Dynasty and in 1949 was reformed as one of China's five minority autonomous regions.

"Guangxi" and neighbouring Guangdong literally mean "Guang West" and "Guang East". Together, Guangdong and Guangxi are called the "Two Guangs" (兩廣). Its culture and language are reflected in this. Though now associated with the Zhuang ethnic minority, Guangxi's culture traditionally has had a close connection with the Cantonese. Cantonese culture and language followed the Xi River (西江) valley from Guangdong and is still predominate in the eastern half of Guangxi today. Outside of this area there is a huge variety of ethnicities and language groups represented.

Guangxi is known for its ethno-linguistic diversity. In the capital of Nanning, for example, four dialect-languages are spoken locally: Southwestern Mandarin, Cantonese, Pinghua, and Zhuang.

The region has a high concentration of Zhuang, over 14 million, one of the major minority ethnicities of China. Over 90% of Zhuang in China live in Guangxi, especially in the central and western regions. There is also a significant number of both Dong and Miao minority peoples. Other ethnic groups include: Yao, Hui, Yi (Lolo), Shui, and Gin (Vietnamese).

Mulao

photo by paulnoll.com

The Mulao or Mulan (仫佬族) people are an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. In their name, Mulam, mu is a classifier for human beings and lam (in some dialects it is kyam) is another form of the name used by the Dong (Kam), whom the Mulam people are ethnically related to. A large portion of the Mulam in Guangxi live in Luocheng Mulao Autonomous County of Hechi, Guangxi.

It is believed that the Mulam are the descendants of the ancient Ling and Liao tribes (Liao dynasty?) that inhabited the region during the time of the Jin dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, the Mulam lived in a feudal society and they paid a series of tributes twice a year to the emperor. During the Qing dynasty, their territories suffered an administrative division; their lands were divided into dongs, which were composed of units for 10 dwellings. Each dong had its own local leader, responsible for maintaining the order and of collecting the taxes. Each dong was generally formed by families that shared the same surname.

The Mulam speak the Mulam language, a Tai-Kadai language. The Mulam language, like that of the Dong, does not has voice stops; however, it does contains unvoiced and voiced nasals and laterals. Its vowel system contains eleven vowels. It is a tonal language with ten tones and 65% of their vocabulary is shared with the Zhuang and Dong languages. Since the Ming dynasty, Chinese characters have been utilized to read and write the Mulam language. The majority of the Mulam also speak Chinese as well as the Zhuang and Dong languages

Mulam have a population of 159,328, 80% of which lives in Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The rest are scattered throughout Xincheng, Yishan, Liucheng, Du'an huanjiang, Hechi, Rongshui and Rong'an etc. in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.

Maonan

photo by paulnoll.com

The Maonan (毛南族; self name: Anan meaning local people) people are an ethnic group. They are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. The Maonan ethnic minority has a population of 107,166, living in the northern part of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, according to the Chinese government site.

Their language belongs to the Kam-Sui branch of the Tai-Kadai languages. Is a tonal language with eight tones. Approximately half of the members of this ethnic group they are capable of speaking this language. In addition to this, many Maonan also speak Chinese or Zhuang.

Interestingly, more than one 80% of the Maonan share the same surname: Tan. Maonan with the surname "Tan" believe that they are descended from the old inhabitants of the province of Hunan that emigrated to Guangxi and married Maonan women. Other frequent surnames found in this ethnic group are: Lu, Meng, Wei and Yan.

The towns of the Maonan do not surpass more than 100 dwellings. Their towns are organized by clan. Their dwellings, are very similar to those of the Zhuang, they are usually made up of two floors and constructed out of clay. The upper floor is used as the living quarters while the lower one serves as a granary and stable.

Yue People

Yue Peoples: Yue (越,粵,鉞) literally: "beyond; Guangdong and Guangxi area refers to ancient semi-Sinicized or non-Sinicized Chinese peoples of southern China, originally those along the eastern coastline of present-day Zhejiang province.

While most Yue peoples were eventually assimilated into Han Chinese culture, the Kam-Tai (Daic): Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Sui (Shui), Kam (Dong), Hlai (Li), Mulam, Maonan, Ong-Be (Lingao), Thai, Lao, Shan and the Vietnamese people retained their ethnic identity. The Vietnamese people eventually broke free from Chinese rule in the 10th century.

* The Origin of Minnan and Hakka, the So-called "Taiwanese", Inferred by HLA Study by M Lin, et al.

Abstract: The Minnan and Hakka people groups, the so-called "Taiwanese", are the descendants of early settlers from the southeast coast of China during the last few centuries. Genetically they showed affinities to southern Asian populations, as determined by phylogenetic trees and correspondence analysis calculated from HLA allele frequencies. This corresponds historically with the fact that they are the descendants of the southeast coastal indigenous population (Yueh) of China and should therefore not be considered as descendants of "pure" northern Han Chinese. A33-B58-DRB1*03 (A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02), the most common HLA haplotype among "Taiwanese", with a haplotype frequency of 6.3%, has also been found to be the most common haplotype among Thai-Chinese and Singapore Chinese, two other populations also originating from the southeast coast of China. These observations suggests that this haplotype is the most well-conserved ancient haplotype of the Yueh.

* Study on Polymorphisms of 3 Str Locus of CSFIPO, TPOX and THO1 in MaoNan Ethnic Group in Guangxi Province by 滕少康

Objective: This study was carried out to investigate the distribution of three short tandem repeats (STR) loci in Maonan ethnic group in GuangXi province and explored the origins of Maonan ethnic group. Materials and methods: Bloodspecimens were collected from 200 healthy unrelated Maonan individuals in GuangXi province, DNA was extracted by using method of Chelex-100 extracting.Three STR locus in Maonan ethnic group were screened by using AmpF?STRIdentifilerTM PCR Amplification Kit and 3100 Genetic Analyzer. Statisticsanalysis:SPSS-χ2 examination and phylogenetic analysis. Results: There were 5alleles and 14 genotypes in TPOX locus, 6 alleles and 19 genotypes in TH01 locus,7 alleles and 21 genotypes in CSF1PO locus. The allele distributions of the lociwere in good agreement with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The heterozygosity (H) of the 3 locus were 0.625、0.735、0.695 respectively; the discrimination power successively were(DP) 0.7900、0.8609、0.8937 and the exclusion probability ofpaternity exclusion (EP) were 0.4590、0.5933、0.6735 in turn. The result of measuring Genetic Distance showed: Zhuang in Guangxi province(0.0278)→Shuiin Guangxi province(0.0327)→Miao in Guangxi province (0.2173) →LiinHainan province(0.2208)→Jing in Guangxi province(0.2316)→Dai in Yunnanprovince (0.2336) →Buyi in Yunnan province(0.2367)→Han in Guangxiprovince(0.2459)→Hasake in Xinjiang province(0.5202). The result of phylogenetic analysis showed: Maonan, Zhuang , Shui, Miao in Guangxi province,Li in Hainan province, Jing in Guangxi province, Dai in Yunnan province, BuyiinYunnan province became one cluster. Han in Guangxi province and Hasake in Xinjiang province was another cluster. Conclusions: The relationship between Maonan, Zhuang and Shui in Guangxi province is the closest . Combinded with research results of ethnology, linguistics and Y-SNP, Maonan in Guangxi province possibly originated from ancient Baiyue minority. The datas obtained can be alsoused in population forensic application.

* Genetic Relationships Among Four Minorities in Guangxi Revealed by Analysis of 15 STRs by Deng Q, et al.

Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the genetic diversity in 15 STRs (short tandem repeats) loci of four minorities in Guangxi Province and to probe into the genetic variation and relationships among these ethnic groups. Allele frequencies of 15 STR loci were collected from 766 unrelated Mulao, Maonan, Miao, and Yao ethnic individuals by PCR-STR and sequencing, and their allele-frequency distribution were compared with each other. The genetic parameters and genetic distances were calculated, and the phylogenetic tree was constructed. Based on the results from this study, 135, 134, 148, and 145 alleles and 424, 432, 445, and 436 genotypes for 15 STR loci were observed in the Mulao, Maonan, Miao, and Yao minorities, respectively. The average heterozygosity of all ethnic groups analyzed was above 0.7; the cumulative power of discrimination (DP), the probabilities of paternity exclusion (EPP), and the polymorphic information content (PIC) were greater than 0.99999. Comparison of the allele-frequency distribution indicated that there were significant differences at most loci between Maonan vs. Miao, Yao vs. other groups, but no distinct differences between Mulao vs. Maonan, and Mulao vs. Miao minorities. The NJ tree based on the genetic distance showed that the four minorities were separated into two groups. Mulao and Maonan were clustered into one group, whereas Miao and Yao into the other. Our results revealed that 15 STR loci of the four minorities possessed high genetic diversities. Therefore, the combination of these 15 STRs is a powerful tool for forensic individual identification and paternity investigation, as well as anthropologic and genetic researches. The genetic variation and relationships among the 4 populations revealed by 15 STRs are basically consistent with their linguistic culture and ethical history.

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Guangdong

Guangdong (廣東) is a province on the southern coast of China.

"Guang" itself means "expanse" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. "Guangdong" and neighboring Guangxi literally mean "expanse east" and "expanse west". Together, Guangdong and Guangxi are called the "Dual-Guangs" (兩廣). The modern abbreviation 粵 (Yue) is related to the Hundred Yue (百越), a collective name for various peoples that lived in Guangdong and other areas in ancient times.

* Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

PC Map of the mtDNA Data of 13 Regional Han Samples from Yong-Gang Yao, et al

(Taiwan-1 clusters with Yunnan, Guangdong (Guangzhou) and Hong Kong)

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Sichuan

Sichuan (四川) is a province in western China with its capital at Chengdu.

The area lies in the Sichuan basin and is surrounded by the Himalayas (喜馬拉雅山脈) to the west, Qinling (秦嶺) range to the north, and mountainous areas of Yunnan to the south. The Yangtze River flows through the basin and thus is upstream to areas of eastern China.

The majority of population is Han Chinese, who are found scattered throughout the province. Significant minorities of Tibetans, Yi, Qiang and Naxi reside in the western portion. The Eastern Lipo, included with either Yi people or Lisu people as well as the A-Hmao also are among the ethnic groups of the provinces. Sichuan was China's most populous province before Chongqing was carved out of it, making Henan the current most populous. However, when including migrants, Guangdong has a higher population than Henan.

History of Sichuan: The province and its vicinity were the cradle of unique local civilizations, which can be dated back to at least the fifteenth century BC (coinciding with the later years of Shang Dynasty). Beginning from the ninth century BC, Shu (today Chengdu) and Ba (today Chongqing City) emerged as cultural and administrative centers where two rival kingdoms were established.

Shu's existence was unknown until an archaeological discovery in 1986 at a small village named Sanxingdui (三星堆) in Guanghan County. It is believed to be an ancient city of the Shu Kingdom, where excavations have yielded invaluable archaeological information.

Although the Qin Dynasty largely destroyed the civilizations of Shu and Ba, these cultures have to some degree persisted and been inherited by people in Sichuan up to the present day.

An Duong Vuong (安陽王) is the title of Thục Phán (蜀泮), who ruled over the ancient kingdom of Âu Lạc from 257 to 207 BC, after defeating the state of Văn Lang and uniting the two tribes Âu Việt and Lạc Việt. He is traditionally said to have lived approximately 100 years.

According to old historical records Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư and Khâm Định Việt Sử Thông Giám Cương Mục, Thục Phán was a prince of the Chinese state of Shu (蜀, which shares the same Chinese character as his surname Thục), sent by his father first to explore what are now the southern Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Yunnan and second to move their people to modern day northern Vietnam during the invasion of the Qin Dynasty.

However, modern Vietnamese scholars claim that "Thục Phán" was a native Austro-Asiatic name which meant "God of crossbow", and that he was an indigenous Vietnamese.

Thục Phán apparently came upon the Âu Việt (甌越) territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi province, with its capital in what is today Cao Bang Province). After assembling an army, he defeated King Hùng Vương (雄王) XVIII, the last ruler of the Hồng Bàng Dynasty, around 257 BC. He proclaimed himself An Dương Vương (安陽王, "King An Dương"). He then renamed his newly acquired state from Văn Lang to Âu Lạc (甌雒/甌駱) and established the new capital at Phong Khê in the present-day Phú Thọ town in northern Vietnam, where he tried to build Cổ Loa Thành (Co Loa Citadel), the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of that new capital.

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Henan

Henan (河南): The name Henan means "south of the (Yellow) River" (Huang He).

Henan is often called Zhongyuan (中原) or Zhongzhou (中州), literally "central plains" or "midland"; this name is also broadly applied to the entire North China Plain. Henan is traditionally regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization.

Han Chinese: In the narrow, original sense, Huaxia refers to a group (or confederation of tribes) of ancient people living along the Yellow River who formed the nucleus of what later became the Han ethnic group in China. In this sense, the term did not originally represent China or Chinese civilisation as a whole, but referred instead to a specific ethno-cultural group (the Huaxia tribe or confederacy 華夏族) that was distinct from other Chinese peoples at the time, such as the Miao and the Dongyi. Subsequently, with the spread of Han culture over most of China, the term came to be used as a generic term for the Chinese nation itself, as well as for Chinese culture in general.

The Central Plain of China (中原; Zhongyuan) refers to the area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. It forms part of the North China Plain. In its narrowest sense, the Central Plain covers modern-day Henan, the southern part of Hebei, the southern part of Shanxi, and the western part of Shandong province. A broader interpretation of the Central Plain's extent would add the Guanzhong plain of Shaanxi, the northwestern part of Jiangsu, and parts of Anhui and northern Hebei.

In the pre-Qin era, present-day Luoyang (Henan) and its nearby areas were considered the “Center of the World”, as the political seat of the Xia Dynasty was located around Songshan and the Yi-Luo river basin.

Inscriptions on some bronze objects from this era contain references to the 'Central States' (Zhongguo; (中國), 'Eastern States', or 'Southern States'. This indicates that the Central Plain, which was referred as the 'Central States' in these inscriptions, was considered to occupy the center of the world.

* STR Polymorphisms of the Henan Population and Investigation of the Central Plains Han Origin of Chaoshanese by Li-Na Xu, et al.

Abstract: Allele frequencies for 15 short tandem repeat (STR) loci were obtained from a Chinese Han population in Henan province of middle China. No deviation from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium was observed for the STR loci except for D3S1358. The 15 STR loci are potentially useful for paternity testing and forensic casework in the Henan population. A phylogenetic tree based on CODIS STR allele frequencies of 25 Han populations revealed noticeable but far less clear distinctions between southern and northern Chinese populations; the Henan Han population was located at an intermediate position between south and north Chinese Han populations, relatively closer to Chaoshan and Minnan Han. Moreover, admixture analysis showed a large proportion of Central Plains Han origin in Chaoshanese and Minnanese. Admixture and phylogenetic analysis also reflected the genetic similarity shared by these two groups.

DNA Profiles of "Han" Taiwanese

TaiwanDNA.com Homepage

Allen Hwang

Autosomal STR Analysis by DNA Tribes

Native Population Match: Hui (Guangxi), Han (Min Nan), Sichuan, Mulao (Guangxi), China, Japan, Maonan (Guangxi), Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Han (Jilin), Japan, Korea, Japan, Miao (Guangxi), Japan, Han (Henan), Taiwanese, Han (Guangdong), Korea, Henan, Korea.

Global Population Match: Hui (Guangxi), Han (Min Nan), Sichuan, Mulao (Guangxi), China, Japan, Maonan (Guangxi), Mongol (Wumeng, Inner Mongolia), Chinese (Malaysia), Han (Jilin), Japan, Korea, Japan, Miao (Guangxi), Japan, Han (Henan), Taiwanese, Tokyo (Japan), Han (Guangdong), Korea.

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Hui

Islam in Taiwan

* Genetic Relationships among Japanese, Northern Han, Hui, Uygur, Kazakh, Greek, Saudi Arabian, and Italian Populations Based on Allelic Frequencies at Four VNTR (D1S80, D4S43, COL2A1, D17S5) and One STR (ACTBP2) Loci by Yoshihiko Katsuyamaa, et al.

* The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity by R. Spencer Wells, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree of 61 Eurasian populations, based on Y-chromosome biallelic haplotype frequencies

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Minnan

Map of Fujian

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

* 分子人類學所見歷史上閩越族群的消失 by 李輝

Qi State

Map of the Qi State (map by KarnRedsun)

Eastern Barbarians

Gui (鬹) from Dawenkou culture

Ancient DNA from Shandong and Japan

* Molecular Genetic Analysis of Remains of a 2,000-year-old Human Population in China-and Its Relevance for the Origin of the Modern Japanese Population by H. Oota, et al. (1999)

* Genetic Structure of a 2,500-Year-Old Human Population in China and Its Spatiotemporal Changes by Li Wang, et al.

A Neighbor-joining Tree for 19 Human Populations

* Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Yayoi Period Human Skeletal Remains from the Doigahama Site by Kazunari Igawa, et al.

Geographicl Distribution of HVI Sequence Types Observed in Doigahama Yayoi Specimens

Jilin

Map of Jilin

Taiwan Under Qing Dynasty Rule

Manchu writing at the Taiwan Confucian Temple. Inscription on the Dismounting stele reads: "Civil and military officials, soldiers and citizens, all dismount from their horses here"

Northeast China

Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang

* Y-chromosome Evidence for Common Ancestry of Three Chinese Populations with a High Risk of Esophageal Cancer by H Huang, et al.

The Two-dimensional Map of Y-SNP Frequencies

(2. Fujian EC high-risk population, 3. Henan Taihang Mountain EC high-risk population, 11. Henan Han, 15. Guangzhou Han, 23. Sichuan Han)

The Two-dimensional Graphs of Y-STR Frequencies

(2. Fujian EC high-risk population, 3. Henan Taihan Mountain EC high-risk population, 16. Manchu)

(4. Fujian Han, 10. Dongbei Han, 13. Tibetan, 18, Naxi, 14, Uygur; 15, Krigiz )

Geographic Distribution of the Three Studied EC High-risk Populations

* Genetic Polymorphisms of 17 Y-chromosomal Short Tandem Repeat Loci in Atayal Population of Taiwan (2009) by Fang-Chin Wu, et al.

Neighbor-joining Tree

(Atayal, Korean, Taiwanese, Japanese, Minnan, Northeast Han Chinese)

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent Sagart

The An Settlement of Taiwan With the MP and TK Migrations

Korean

Map of Korea

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

(Taiwan (Han) clusters with Mongolia, Korea)

Japanese

Map of Japan (map by Connormah)

* Formosa Betrayed by George H. Kerr

Taiwan under Japanese Rule

Map of the Japanese Empire (Map by Bamse)

* The Biological Evidence of the San-pau-chi People and Their Affinities by Hsiu-Man Lin

The Biological Evidence of the San-Pau-Chu People: Prehistoric Man of Taiwan by Hsiu-Man Lin

Mongol

Map of Inner Mongolia

Yuan Dynasty

(Map by Ian Kiu)

* Genetic Polymorphisms at HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 Loci in Han Population of Xi’an City in China by Chunmei Shen, et al.

Dendrogram Constructed by the Neighbor-joining Method Showing the Relationship Between Han Population with Other 15 Populations Based on the Allele Arequencies of HLA-DRB1 Locus

(Han Inner Mongolia, Li, Japanese; Han Fujian, Mongolian Inner Mongolia, Ewenki)

Miao

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

History of the Miao People

Map of the Chu State (map by KarnRedsun)

Southern Barbarians

* The Power of Language Over the Past: Tai settlement and Tai Linguistics in Southern China and Northern Vietnam by Jerold A. Edmondson

O Subclades

* Ethnic Related Selection for an ADH Class I Variant Within East Asia by Li H, et al.

Principal Component Analysis Plot Based on the ADH1B Haplotypes Frequency Data

(CHT: Minnan Taiwanese, HMQ: Black Hmong, MWW: White Hmong, KOR: Korean, JPN: Japanese, CHS: Cantonese)

Guangxi

Mulao

photo by paulnoll.com

Maonan

photo by paulnoll.com