<%@LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT" CODEPAGE="65001"%> Alan Huang

Alan Huang

 

馬偕紀念醫院個人血緣分析報告

 

 

 

 

 

TaiwanAncestry.com

 

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

 

mtDNA：M7b1

HVSI (16037-16569)：16129, 16192, 16223, 16297

 

Mackay Report: M7 血緣應該是起源於中國南部，然後再往東亞的海邊與東南亞遷徙。M7 的分佈最北是到日本，主要存在於東南亞大陸的人群中，M7b1 則主要存在於東南亞大陸(continental Southeast Asia)與南亞島嶼(island Southeast Asia)的人群中。在本實驗室收集的資料中，M7b1 出現於台灣閩南(Minnan)、客家(Hakka)人、台灣平埔族(Taiwanese plains aborigine)、少數台灣原住民(Taiwanese aborigine)、中國福建(Fujian)人、中國南方少數民族(ethnic minorities in Southern China)、泰國人 (Thai) 、越南人(Vietnamese) 、馬來西亞人 (Malay) 、菲律賓人(Filipino)、印尼人(Indonesian)中及一、兩位的韓國(Korean)、日本人(Japanese)，可以說其分佈最北不超過台灣。黃先生您的粒線體DNA 單倍型(haplotypes)因不具其他可供辨識之地區特有變異點，因此只能較籠統的認為其來源為東南亞大陸(continental Southeast Asia)

 

 

Continental Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia (or Southeastern Asia) is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity.

Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions: the Asian mainland ( Indochina ) and island arcs and archipelagoes to the east and southeast ( Malay Archipelago ). The mainland section consists of Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam and Peninsular Malaysia while the maritime section consists of Brunei, East Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore. Papua New Guinea is an observer in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, as is East Timor.

Geographically speaking southern China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau are sometimes grouped in the Southeast Asia subregion, although politically they are rarely grouped as such. The same is true for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India.

Austronesian peoples predominate in this region.

 

 

Haplogroup M (mtDNA)

Haplogroup M is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. An enormous haplogroup spanning all the continents, the macro-haplogroup M, like its sibling N, is a descendant of haplogroup L3.

All mtDNA haplogroups considered native outside of Africa are descendants of either haplogroup M or its sibling haplogroup N. The geographical distributions of M and N are associated with discussions concerning out of Africa migrations and the subsequent colonization of the rest of the world. In particular it is often taken to indicate that it is very likely that there was one particularly major prehistoric migration of humans out of Africa, and that both M and N were part of this colonization process.

Dispersal: A number of studies have proposed that the ancestors of modern haplogroup M dispersed from Africa through the southern route across the Horn of Africa along the coastal regions of Asia onwards to New Guinea and Australia. These studies suggested that the migrations of haplogroups M and N occurred separately with haplogroup N heading northwards from East Africa to the Levant. However, the results of numerous recent studies indicate that there was only one migration out of Africa and that haplogroups M and N were part of the same migration. This is based on the analysis of a number of relict populations along the proposed beachcombing route from Africa to Australia, all of which possessed both haplogroups N and M.

A 2008 study by Abu-Amero et al., suggests that the Arabian Peninsula may have been the main route out of Africa. However as the region lacks of autochthonous clades of haplogroups M and N the authors suggest that the area has been a more recent receptor of human migrations than an ancient demographic expansion center along the southern coastal route as proposed under the single migration Out-of-Africa scenario of the African origin hypothesis.

Distribution: M is the single most common mtDNA haplogroup in Asia, and peaks in Bangladesh where it represents two thirds of the maternal lineages, and is ubiquitous in India where it has a 60% frequency.

Due to its great age, haplogroup M is an mtDNA lineage which does not correspond well to present-day ethnic groups, as it spans Siberian, Native American, East Asian, Southeast Asian, Central Asian, South Asian, Melanesian populations at a considerable frequency .

Among the descendants of M are C, D, E, G, Q, and Z, with Z and G being observed in North Eurasian populations, C and D being shared between North Eurasian and Native American populations, E being observed in Southeast Asian populations, and Q being observed in Melanesian populations. The lineages M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M18 and M25 are exclusive to South Asia, with M2 reported to be the oldest lineage on the Indian sub-continent.

Subgroups Distribution

Tree

This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup M subclades is based on the paper by Mannis van Oven and Manfred Kayser Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation and subsequent published research.

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Haplogrouping of the Okhotsk People Based on Analysis of Ancient DNA: An intermediate of gene flow from the continental Sakhalin people to the Ainu by Takehiro Sato, et al.

Geographical Locations of Northeastern Asian Populations Compared with the Okhotsk People in the Present Study

OK, Okhotsk; UL, Ulichi; NV, Nivkhi; NG, Negidal; AI, Ainu; HJ, Hokkaido Jomon; JP, Mainland Japanese; CN, Chinese; KR, Korean; UD, Udegey; KY, Koryak; IT, Itelmen; ES, Eskimo; CH, Chukuchi; EV, Evenki; BR, Buryat; TF, Tofalar; TV, Tuvan; TB, Tubalar; NS, Nganasan; KT, Ket; MN, Mansi.

 

Frequencies of mtDNA Haplogroups (%) in Northeastern Asian Populations

Haplogroup OK UL NV NG AI HJ JP CN KR UD KY IT ES CH EV BR TF TV TB NS KT MN
n
37
87
56
33
51
44
874
160
103
46
155
47
79
66
71
25
46
95
72
24
38
98
M7
5.4
       19.6
6.8
15.2
6.9
10.3
                          

 

 

 

 

 

* Mitochondrial Genome Variation in Eastern Asia and the Peopling of Japan by Masashi Tanaka, et al.

Excerpt: Haplogroup M7: This haplogroup was defined by Bamshad et al. (2001) as having two branches, M7a characterized by 16209 and M7b by 16297 transitions. Yao et al. (2002a) assigned mutations 199 and 9824 as basic for M7. However, our phylogenetic tree points to 6455 and 9824 as the basal mutations for this group, whereas 199 is only common to the M7b and M7c subgroups (Fig. 1A), which coincides with the phylogeny proposed by Kivisild et al. (2002). M7 can be RFLP-diagnosed by the lack of the 6451 MboII restriction site. The M7a subgroup can be defined by several codingregion positions (Fig. 1A; Kivisild et al. 2002). The M7b classification remains as proposed in Kivisild et al. (2002); but M7c has, in addition to 146 and 16295, three more coding-region substitutions (4850, 5442, and 12091) in its basal branch (Fig. 1A). At this point, it is worthwhile pointing out that the ambiguously assigned sequence 536 in Herrnstadt et al. (2002) belongs to M7c, as it has the five identifying coding-region mutations distinctive of this subhaplogroup. As for the geographic distribution, M7a1 has its highest frequencies (14%) and diversities (86%) in the Ryukyuans, and it is also very common in the whole of China, with a mean diversity of ~76%. But, curiously, it has not been detected in Koreans or in Ainu, and is rare in mainland Japanese. In a similar way, M7a has its highest diversity in Ryukyuans (83%). Both groups are rather common in the Philippines. Although M7b has its greatest diversity in northern China (75%-62%), its derivative M7b2, has it again in Ryukyuans (100%), Koreans (53%), and mainland Japanese (45%). On the contrary, M7c is absent in Ainu and rare in mainland Japanese but very common in Sabah and the Philippines, although its highest diversity is in the whole of China (76% ± 11%).

 

 

* The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers by Han-Jun Jin, et al.

Distribution of mtDNA Haplogroup M7 Frequencies in 7 East Asian Populations

Haplogroup Korean Chinese Mongolian Manchurian Han Beijing Vietnamese Thais Korean
n 51 47 40 40 42 40 185
M7a1            
7
M7b  
1
  
1
  
3
  
M7b1    
2
    
2
1
M7b2
2
        
1
4
M7c  
1
1
  
1
1
M7c1
1
  
1
1
1
1
6

 

 

* Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in South Siberia by Derenko MV, et al.

Geographic locations of the South Siberian Populations Studied

Populations are coded as: AL - Altaians, KH - Khakassians, BR - Buryats, ST - Sojots, TD - Todjins, TV - Tuvinians, TF - Tofalars

 

Excerpt: Haplogroup M sub-lineages, M7, M8, M9, M10 and M* were detected in Todjins, Buryats, and Altaians with frequencies of 4.2%, 3.3% and 7.3%, respectively....

The remaining M mtDNAs are represented in South Siberia by several minor branches occurring at very low frequencies among Altains, Buryats and Todjins. The only Todjin HVR1 sequence 16129-16192-16223-16297 probably belongs to haplogroup M7b1, ...

 

 

* Admixture, Migrations, and Dispersals in Central Asia: Evidence from maternal DNA lineages by David Comas, et al.

Geographic Location of Samples Analyzed in the Present Study

Frequencies of East Asian, West Eurasian, and Indian lineages are shown in white, pale gray, and dark gray, respectively.

 

Haplogroup M7 Frequencies in the Samples Analyzed

Haplogroup CT IR TU KR KU AR UZ TD KZ KG DU UI
n
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
16
16
M7b                  
1
2
1
M7c                      
1
(CT: Crimean Tatars, IR: Iranian, TU: Turkmen, KR: Karakalpak, KU: Khoremian Uzbek, AR: Bukharan Arabs, UZ: Uzbek, TD: Tajik, KZ: Kazak, KG: Kyrgyz, DU: Dungan, and UI: Uighur)

 

 

* The Emerging Limbs and Twigs of the East Asian mtDNA Tree by Toomas Kivisild, et al.

Phylogenetic Reconstruction and Geographic Distribution of Haplogroup M7

 

 

* Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

Excerpt: Haplogroup M7b (including M7b1, M7b2, and M7b*) is absent in the Zhanjiang sample but is present, with a frequency of 8.7%, in the Guangzhou sample....

Han people from the proximal Fujiang and Guangdong provinces and other parts of China continually migrated to Taiwan, with two main waves arriving in the 18th and 19th centuries (Ge et al. 1997). The high frequencies of haplogroups F1a and M7b in the Taiwanese Han, if not an autochthonous signal, might well reflect this connection with south mainland China, whereas other haplogroups—such as G2 and Y, mainly present in the north—hint at recent migrations from north and northeast China. The presence of two R9a types in Xinjiang (incidentally matching the two R9a haplotypes from Hong Kong; Betty et al. 1996), as well as the M7b haplotypes, point to connections with south and southwest China, where R9a and M7b are prevalent.

 

Sequence Variation in the 263 Chinese Han Individuals Analyzed in the Present Study

 

Estimated Frequencies (%) of mtDNA Haplogroups in Regional Han Populations

(Yunnan, Wuhan, Qingdao, Liaoning, Xinjiang, Guangdong-Zhanjiang, Guangdong-Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Taiwan1, Taiwan2, Qinghai, Shanghai, Zibo)

 

 

* Genetic Polymorphism of Mitochondrial DNA in Dong, Gelao, Tujia, and Yi Ethnic Populations from Guizhou, China by Binbin Li, et al.

(T- Tujia, D - Dong, G - Gelao, Y - Yi)

 

Frequencies of mtDNA Haplogroup M7 in Nine Ethnic Populations

Haplogroup Dong Gelao Tujia Yi Dai Lahu Tibetan Mongolian Kazak
n
28
31
29
20
41
35
40
49
53
M7b1
3.6
6.5
3.5
4.8
        
M7b2
7.1
  
10.4
 5.0
       
M7b*
3.6
  
6.9
  
6.5
        

 

 

* Pinghua Population as an Exception of Han Chinese's Coherent Genetic Structure by RJ Gan, et al.

Abstract: The Han Chinese is the largest single ethnic group in the world, consisting of ten Chinese branches. With the exception of the Pinghua branch, the genetic structure of this group has been studied extensively, and Y chromosome and mitochondrial (mt)DNA data have demonstrated a coherent genetic structure of all Han Chinese. It is therefore believed that the Pinghua branch, being members of an old branch of the Han Chinese, despite being scattered in and around Guangxi Province where members of the Daic and Hmong-Mien are more prevalent than Han Chinese, is no exception. We have studied 470 individual samples (including 195 males) from Pinghua populations and other ethnic groups (Zhuang, Kam, Mulam, Laka, and Mien) from six areas (Hezhou, Fuchuan, Luocheng, Jinxiu, Sanjiang, and Wuxuan) in the north of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of China. Both mtDNA and the Y chromosomes were typed in these samples. High frequencies of the Y chromosome haplogroups O2a* and O*, which always present at a high frequency among the populations of the southern minorities, were found in Pinghua populations. Only Pinghua populations in Luocheng and Jinxiu maintain the Han frequent haplogroup O3a5a. mtDNA lineages B4a, B5a, M*, F1a, M7b1, and N* were found in Pinghua populations, exhibiting a pattern similar to the neighboring indigenous populations, especially the Daic populations. Cluster analyses (dendrograms, principal component analyses, and networks) of Pinghua populations, the other Han branches, and other ethnic groups in East Asia indicated that Pinghua populations are much closer to the southern minorities than to the other Han branches. Admixture analyses confirmed this result. In conclusion, we argue that Pinghua populations did not descend from Han Chinese, but from southern minorities. The ancestral populations of Pinghua people were assimilated by the Han Chinese in terms of language, culture, and self-identification and, consequently, the Pinghua people became an exceptional branch of Han Chinese's coherent genetic structure.

 

 

* Analyses of Genetic Structure of Tibeto-Burman Populations Reveals Sex-Biased Admixture in Southern Tibeto-Burmans by Bo Wen, et al.

Geographic Locations of TB Populations Sampled

1. Tibetan-Qinghai, 2. Tibetan-Tibet, 3, Tibetan-Tibet, 4. Tibetan-Yunnan, 5. Tibetan-Yunnan, 6. Tibetan-Yunnan, 7. Aini-Yunnan, 8. Bai-Yunnan, 9. Bai-Yunnan, 10. Hani-Yunnan, 11. Jino-Yunnan, 12. Lahu-Yunnan, 13. Lahu-Yunnan, 14. Lahu-Yunnan, 15. Lisu-Yunnan, 16. Lisu-Yunnan, 17. Naxi-Yunnan, 18. Nu-Yunnan, 19. Pumi-Yunnan, 20.Tujia-Hunan, 21.Tujia-Hunan, 22.Tujia-Hunan, 23. Yi-Sichuan, 24. Yi-Yunnan, 25. Yi-Yunnan, 26. Yi-Sichuan, 27. Yi-Yunnan

 

mtDNA Haplogroup M7 Distribution in TB Populations

Haplogroup 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 25 27
n 56 24 35 40 50 68 19 33 18 32 15 35 37 45 30 36 64 30 40 16 31
M7*        
1
                      
1
      
M7b*        
1
2
                    
1
  
2
    
M7b1        
4
2
1
  
3
        
1
    
1
1
3
1
2

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Abstract: Hakka and Chaoshanese are two unique Han populations residing in southern China but with northern Han (NH) cultural traditions and linguistic influences. Although most of historical records indicate that both populations migrated from northern China in the last two thousand years, no consensus on their origins has been reached so far. To shed more light on the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese, mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 170 Hakka from Meizhou and 102 Chaoshanese from Chaoshan area, Guangdong Province, were analyzed. Our results show that some southern Chinese predominant haplogroups, e.g. B, F, and M7, have relatively high frequencies in both populations. Although median network analyses show that Hakka/Chaoshanese share some haplotypes with NH, interpopulation comparison reveals that both populations show closer affinity with southern Han (SH) populations than with NH. In consideration of previous results from nuclear gene (including Y chromosome) research, it is likely that matrilineal landscapes of both Hakka and Chaoshanese have largely been shaped by the local people during their migration southward and/or later colonization in southern China, and factors such as cultural assimilation, patrilocality, and even sex-bias in the immigrants might have played important roles during the process.

Excerpt: The most frequent haplogroups are B (22.9%), F (22.4%), D (12.4%), and M7 (12.4%) for Meizhou Hakka, and D (25.5%), F (19.6%), B (16.7%), and M7 (13.7%) for Chaoshanese. All of these haplogroups have wide distribution among different Han regional populations.

 

 

* More Genetic Sharing among the Populations of Taiwan than Expected: A Plain tribes (Pinpu) Perspective
Marie LIN, et al.

Excerpt: Analysis showed that 56% of mtDNA haplotypes were shared between plain tribes, TwA and ISEA (B4a1a, B4c1b, B5a2, E1a, E1a1a, F1a1a, F1a3, F1a4, F3b2b, M7b1, M7b3 and M7c3).

Only 8% of mtDNA haplotypes were shared between plain tribes and TwA (B4a2a, B4b1a, D5b3, E2b1, F1a1a'tw, F4b, M7c3a and N9a3).

Also, 28% haplotypes were shared between plain tribes and CSEA (B4, B4a, B4a1, B4b1, B4c1b, B5a1, C6, D, D4, D4a, F1a, F2, F3a, M7, M7b, M10a2, R9b1 and R9e).

 

 

* Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-speaking Formosan Populations by Trejaut JA, et al.

Tree Drawn from a Median-Joining Network of 96 mtDNA Haplotypes Observed in Nine Indigenous Taiwanese Populations

 

Haplogroup Frequencies in Taiwan, East Asia, and Oceania

 

 

 

* Tracing the Austronesian Footprint in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Perspective from Mitochondrial DNA by Min-Sheng Peng, et al.

Abstract: As the relic of the ancient Champa Kingdom, the Cham people represent the major Austronesian speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) and their origin is evidently associated with the Austronesian diffusion in MSEA. Hitherto, hypotheses stemming mainly from linguistic and cultural viewpoints on the origin of the Cham people remain a welter of controversies. Among the points of dissension is the muddled issue of whether the Cham people arose from demic or cultural diffusion from the Austronesians. Addressing this issue also helps elucidate the dispersal mode of the Austronesian language. In the present study, we have analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control-region and coding-region sequence variations in 168 Cham and 139 Kinh individuals from Vietnam. Around 77% and 95% matrilineal components in the Chams and the Kinhs, respectively, could be assigned into the defined mtDNA haplogroups. Additionally, three common East Eurasian haplogroups B, R9, and M7 account for the majority (>60%) of maternal components in both populations. Entire sequencing of 20 representative mtDNAs selected from the thus far unclassified lineages, together with four new mtDNA genome sequences from Thailand, led to the identification of one new haplogroup M77 and helped to re-evaluate several haplogroups determined previously. Comparing the Chams with other Southeast Asian populations reveals that the Chams had a closer affinity with the Mon–Khmer populations in MSEA than with the Austronesian populations from Island Southeast Asia (ISEA). Further analyses failed to detect the potential homelands of the Chams in ISEA. Therefore, our results suggested that the origin of the Cham was likely a process of assimilation of massive local Mon–Khmer populations accompanied with language shift, thus indicating that the Austronesian diffusion in MSEA was mainly mediated by cultural diffusion, at least from the matrilineal genetic perspective, an observation in agreement with the hypothesis of the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Networks.

 

mtDNA Sequence Variation of the Cham and Kinh

Sample Haplogroup HVS-1 (16038-16569)  vs. rCRS (16000+)
Cham118 M7b1 129 158 189 192 223 297 519 
Cham145 M7b1 129 189 192 223 291 297 519
Cham097 M7b1 129 189 192 223 297 
Cham144 M7b1 129 192 223 297 
Cham150 M7b1 129 192 223 297 
Kinh020 M7b1 129 189 192 223 297 356 502 
Kinh091 M7b1 129 192 223 249 297 324 
Kinh039 M7b1 129 192 223 261 297 298 
Kinh012 M7b1 129 192 223 297 
Kinh083 M7b1 129 192 223 297 
Kinh113 M7b1 129 192 223 297 
Kinh103 M7b1 129 192 223 297 324 
Kinh132 M7b1 129 192 223 297 324 
Kinh009 M7b1 129 192 297 

 

 

Mon-Khmer

The Mon-Khmer languages are a language family of Southeast Asia. Together with the Munda languages of India, they are one of the two traditional primary branches of the Austroasiatic family. However, several recent classifications have abandoned this dichotomy, either reducing the scope of Mon-Khmer (Diffloth 2005) or breaking it up entirely (or equivalently reclassifying Munda as a branch of Mon-Khmer: Peiros 1998). See Austroasiatic languages.

Austro-Asiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. It is widely believed that the Austro-Asiatic languages are the autochthonous languages of Southeast Asia and the eastern Indian subcontinent, and that the other languages of the region, including the Indo-European, Kradai, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan languages, are the result of later migrations of people.

 

 

* Deciphering Past Human Population Movements in Oceania: Provably Optimal Trees of 127 mtDNA Genomes by Melanie J. Pierson, et al.

Excerpt: The 2 sequences from Taiwan described here (DQ372868 and DQ372869) belong to haplogroups M/M7c and N/R/B5a, both of which have been reported from HVR-I data to be present in Oceania and Island Southeast Asia. A Micronesian sample from the Marshall Islands (DQ372876) is closely related to the Taiwanese M7c sequence, and these together with a sequence from the Philippines and 1 from Mongolia form a subclade of M7c separate from other sequences from China and Japan (fig. S2, Supplementary Material online). The Taiwanese B5a sequence is notable for its distance from the B5a sequences from the Austro-Asiatic language–speaking Nicobarese (TMRCA estimate 27,732 ± 5,005 years); however, HVR-I sequences from aboriginal Taiwanese suggest that B5a lineages more closely related
to the Nicobarese haplotypes may also exist in Taiwan (Trejaut et al. 2005).

 

 

* A Mitochondrial Stratigraphy for Island Southeast Asia by Catherine Hill, et al.

Map of Taiwan and Southeast Asia

Showing both modern coastlines (darker shading) and the 120-m depth contour below sea level (lighter shading), indicating the extent of Sundaland at the Last Glacial Maximum

 

Haplogroup M7 Frequencies in China and Southeast Asia

Haplogroup NW China NE
China		 SW
China		 SE
China		 Thailand Melayu
Malays		 Orang
Asli		 Taiwan Philippines
M7*
.7
.2
.9
1.2
.8
        
M7b*
1.0
1.1
3.4
3.0
2.0
    
.1
  
M7b1
1.7
3.2
4.6
2.1
2.8
3.7
  
.7
  
M7b3 .2            
10.2
  
M7c1*
1.2
.2
.3
.9
1.2
.9
      
M7c1a  
.5
  
.7
    
.4
1.2
  
M7c1c  
.5
.2
  
.4
4.6
3.1
4.2
11.3

 

Haplogroup Sumatra Borneo Java Bali Lombok Sumba Sulawesi Alor Ambon Total ISEA
M7*
2.8
.6
  
1.2
  
2.0
1.3
  
2.3
1.2
M7b*
.6
1.3
  
1.2
        
2.3
.5
M7b1
1.7
.6
2.2
4.8
6.8
  
.4
  
2.3
1.4
M7b3          
8.0
1.3
    
.8
M7c1*            
.4
    
.1
M7c1a  
.6
              
.2
M7c1c
8.9
7.0
10.9
6.0
2.3
12.0
11.0
4.4
2.3
8.3

 

_______________________________________________________________________________________

 

Y-DNA: O1a1* (M214,M175,M119,P203)

Y-STR：DYS19 (15), DYS385a/b (12), DYS389I (12), DYS390 (23),
DYS390II (28), DYS391 (10), DYS392 (14), DYS393 (13),
DYS437 (14), DYS438 (10), DYS439 (11), DYS448 (18),
DYS456 (15), DYS458 (15), DYS635 (20), Y GATA H4 (12)

 

Mackay Report: O1 單倍群的起源可能是中國南部，更認為O1 血緣與南島語族的起源很有關係。O1 血緣是台灣原住民的主要父系血緣，O1 在中國南方且被認為是(百)越族的特徵血緣，所以在南方漢族與傣族及說藏緬語的族群中廣泛分佈，但主要是在中國南方漢人(Southern Han Chinese)之中。為了釐清黃先生您的父系血緣之來源，我們比較了您的Y 染色體單倍型與本實驗室資料庫中樣本比較，發現您的父系血緣與來自福建(Fujian)的樣本類似，並且您在問卷中也有祖先來自福建泉州(Quanzhou)的記錄，因此認為您的父系血緣是來自中國南方越族(Yue People)。

 

 

Haplogroup O1 (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup O1 (MSY2.2) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Haplogroup O1 is a descendent branch of the greater Haplogroup O.
The great majority of Y-chromosomes within Haplogroup O1 belong to its subgroup O1a (M119).

Origins: The Haplogroup O1 branch is believed to have evolved during the Late Pleistocene (Upper Paleolithic) in Southeast Asia. The genetic marker, Haplogroup O1a-M119 is found frequently among Austronesian peoples, Kradai peoples, and Ethnic minorities in China. This lineage is presumed to be a marker of the prehistoric Austronesian expansion, with possible origins encompassing the regions along the southeastern coast of China and neighboring Taiwan, and is found among modern populations of Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania.

A 2009 study by Karafet et al. at the University of Arizona suggests haplogroup O1 was part of a four-phase colonization model in which Paleolithic migrations of hunter-gatherers shaped the primary structure of current Y chromosome diversity of Maritime Southeast Asia. Neolithic incursions made only a minor impact on the paternal gene pool, despite the large cultural impact of the Austronesian expansion. Approximately 5000 BC, Haplogroup O1 coalesced at Sundaland and migrated northwards to as far as Taiwan, where O1a2 constitutes some 90% of the Aboriginal Y-DNA, being the main haplogroup that can be directly linked to the Austronesian expansion in phase 3.

Li et al. at the Yale University Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, concluded that in contrast to the Taiwan homeland hypothesis, Island Southeast Asians do not have a Taiwan origin based on their paternal lineages. According to their results, lineages within Maritime Southeast Asia did not originate from Taiwanese aborigines as linguistic studies suggest. Taiwan aborigines and Indonesians were likely to have been derived from the Daic populations based on their paternal lineages, and therefore evolved independently of each other.

The strongest positive correlation between Haplogroup O1 and ethnolinguistic affiliation is that which is observed between this haplogroup and the Austronesians. The peak frequency of Haplogroup O1 is found among the aborigines of Taiwan, precisely the region from which linguists have hypothesized that the Austronesian language family originated. A slightly weaker correlation is observed between Haplogroup O1 and the Han Chinese populations of southern China, as well as between this haplogroup and the Kradai-speaking populations of southern China and Southeast Asia. The distribution of Daic languages in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of China has long been believed, for reasons of traditional linguistic geography, to reflect a recent invasion of Southeast Asia by Daic-speaking populations originating from southeastern China, and the somewhat elevated frequency of Haplogroup O1 among the Daic populations, coupled with a high frequency of Haplogroup O2a, which is a genetic characteristic of the Austro-Asiatic peoples of Southeast Asia, suggests that the genetic signature of the Daic peoples' affinity with populations of southeastern China has been weakened due to extensive assimilation of the earlier Austro-Asiatic residents of the lands which the Daic peoples invaded. Also, it has been noted that Haplogroup O1 lineages among populations of continental Southeast Asia outside of China display a reduced level of diversity when compared with populations of South China and insular Southeast Asia, which may be evidence of a bottleneck associated with the westward migration and settlement of ancestral Daic-speaking populations in Indochina.

Distribution: Haplogroup O1 lineages are found primarily in Southeast Asian populations of Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, southern China and Taiwan.

Haplogroup O1a-M119 Y-chromosomes also have been found to occur at low frequency among various populations of Siberia, such as the Nivkhs (one of 17 sampled Y-chromosomes), Ulchi/Nanai (2/53), Yenisey Evenks (1/31), and especially the Buryats living in the Sayan-Baikal uplands of Irkutsk Oblast (6/13).

Frequencies: A 2008 study by Li et al. at Yale University Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, demonstrated that the admixture analyses of Daic populations showed a significant genetic influence over a large proportion of Indonesians. Most of the population samples contained a high frequency of haplogroup O1a-M119.

The frequencies of Haplogroup O1 among various East Asian and Austronesian populations suggest a complex genetic history of the modern Han populations of southern China. Although Haplogroup O1 occurs only at an average frequency of approximately 4% among Han populations of northern China and peoples of southwestern China and Southeast Asia who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, the frequency of this haplogroup among the Han populations of southern China nearly quadruples to about 15%. The frequency of Haplogroup O1 among the Southern Han has been found to be slightly greater than the arithmetic mean of the frequencies of Haplogroup O1 among the Northern Han and a pooled sample of Austronesian populations. This suggests that modern Southern Han populations may possess a non-trivial number of male ancestors who were originally affiliated with some Austronesian-related culture, or who at least shared a genetic affinity with many of the ancestors of modern Austronesian peoples.

Subgroups

The subclades of Haplogroup O1 with their defining mutation(s), according to the 2010 ISOGG tree:

 

 

* Partial Duplication at AZFc on the Y Chromosome Is a Risk Factor for Impaired Spermatogenesis in Han Chinese in Taiwan by Yi-Wen Lin, et al.

The Y Chromosome Haplogroups of Han Taiwanese

 

 

我們流著不同的血液: 以血型、基因的科學證據揭開台灣各族群身世之謎
by 林媽利

 

 

 

Excerpt

從基因看人類的遷移: 台灣人的構成
…我們認為閩南人、客家人是屬於中國南方的族群, 這個跟過去的觀念不一樣, 而且也會牽扯到政治, 所以當然會有人來「消毒」, 有2007年中國的報導《分子人類學所見歷史上閩越族群的消失》,因為父系血緣的O1*血緣, 被認為是中國越族的特徵血緣, 這報告中福建各處195人的男性檢體, 只有6%(13/195) 屬於O1*血緣,195人中的59人採樣自閩南及潮州地區, 這些地區正是台灣閩南人、客家人的來處, 結果這59人中並沒有發現O1*血緣, 所以結論是這些地方的越族早已被漢武帝移走或者是殺掉, 現在閩南、潮州地區的人應該是來自中國北方漢人移民的後代。是這樣嗎?因為我們也有福建的檢體啊! 所以, 我們在55個福建男性中找到12人是O1*型(22%), 22%跟6%在統計上是有意義的不同,表示這二個資料有不同的結果,我們認為福建還有22%越族的O1*血緣,百越族並沒消失。我們對我們的結果有信心, 且這結果和台灣人O1*血緣的頻率接近。…

我們在2006年為100個台灣人做尋根的服務…上述100人當中有彭明敏教授, 徵得他的同意, 他的祖先來源是母系血緣從亞洲北方來的, 他的父系血緣是屬於O1*血緣, 在台灣O1*血緣可能來自越族或者來自台灣原住民, 後來我們做了Y-STR分析, 發現他的父系血緣是屬於原住民, 他的組織抗原有只見於西拉雅的特徵血緣, 還有一個組織抗原是閩越族的特徵血緣。所以可以看到他的基因來源是多方來源。我們發現台灣人差不多都是這個樣子, 每個人都可能有多元來源的
祖先群。…

永恆的平埔族: 西拉雅族、巴宰族及凱達格蘭族遺傳基因的研究
…台灣高山族主要屬於M119及M95群, 閩南人主要屬於M122群。M119群父系血緣在台灣有O1a*, O1a1*及O1a2的3個血緣,M95群有O2*,O2a*及O2a1a的3個血緣。M122血緣在台灣高山族有O3*,O3a*,O3a3*及O3a3c1*,在平埔族除此外多出O3a3a,O3a3b*,O3a3c*(漢藏語系為主), O3a3c1a及O3a4*血緣。O1*(O1a*及O1a1*)血緣在中國被認為是越族的血緣, O1*血緣在福建人出現22%,在台灣高山族有很高的頻率, 如在泰雅族高達98%,以致中國不少學者認為台灣高山族與古代泰越族為同一來源, 在這報告中, 我們試著探討福建人的O1*及台灣高山族O1*是否完全相同。在這報告中, 我們也探討在西拉雅族、巴宰族及凱達格蘭族三族平埔族出現的O1*是來自福建的移民, 或是源自台灣高山族(及平埔族群原本) 的血緣。…

西拉雅族共有14%(25/221) 的父系血緣屬於O1a2血緣, 巴宰族有13%(5/40) 也屬於這個血緣, 凱達格蘭族24男性中則有一人為這血緣。西拉雅族屬O1*(O1a*+O1a1*)血緣有71人, 因O1*血緣可來自高山族及平埔族(泰雅族有98%屬這血緣), 也可來自福建移民(福建人有22%屬這血緣), 所以利用西拉雅族32人、巴宰族18人及凱達格蘭族8人的O1*的Y-STR結果與台灣高山族238人及福建人23人的Y-STR資料做neighbor network分析, 以探究西拉雅族人或巴宰族人O1* 的父系血緣是來自福建移民, 或者是源白原來的台灣高山族或平埔族。一起分析的O1*STR資料包括: 阿美族l6人、泰雅族49人、排灣族15人、卑南族14人、魯凱族22人、賽夏族21人、太魯閣族19人、邵族19人、鄒族38人及雅美族25人、共238人高山族、及菲律賓巴丹人10人、台灣人5人及福建人23人。分析的結果顯示在圖2的O1*父系血緣網狀關係split tree圖上，中心的網狀處是顯示基因的相關性，這關係圖很明顯的把福建人與台灣高山族區分開來，灰色區為平埔族及高山族區，圈起來的區域(在時鐘9點的位置)為福建人區，可看到被分析的32人西拉雅族中8人落在福建人區，表示這8人或25% (8/32=25%) O1*西拉雅族父系血緣來自福建的移民(8人為SL233, SL320, SL314, SL316, SL014, SL019, SL030, SL321)，其他24人(75%)的O1*血緣落在高山原住民區(灰色區)，顯示這75%西拉雅族的O1*父系血緣來自平埔族或高山族。在巴宰族的情形是40個男性族人中,父系血緣屬O1*系血緣有21人, 其中18人參與父系血緣屬的neighbor network分析, 結果有5人或28%(5/18=28%)的O1*父系血緣來自福建(5人為PZ031,PZ019,PZ098,PZ058,PZ080在時鐘9點圈起來的地區),其他72%來自平埔族或高山族(灰色區)。凱達格蘭族23個男性族人中, 有1人屬台灣高山族特有的O1a2,8人屬於O1*,經Y-STR資料分析, 其中5人(63%)O1*父系血緣來自平埔族或高山族, 在圖2可見西拉雅族、巴宰族及凱達格蘭族屬非福建人的O1*父系血緣常在同一區出現, 顯示這三族平埔族的父系血緣在遺傳上接近及相關。…

 

 

* 永恆的西拉雅族－遺傳基因的研究 by 林媽利, et al.

圖2 O1*父系血緣Y-STR的Neighbor Network 分析

線 圈起來的區域為福建人區, 灰色區為高山族區含平埔族血緣

(circled area - Fujian, shaded areas - Taiwanese aborigines)

 

 

* Y Chromosomes of Prehistoric People Along the Yangtze River by Hui Li, et al.

Abstract: The ability to extract mitochondrial and nuclear DNA from ancient remains has enabled the study of ancient DNA, a legitimate field for over 20 years now. Recently, Y chromosome genotyping has begun to be applied to ancient DNA. The Y chromosome haplogroup in East Asia has since caught the attention of molecular anthropologists, as it is one of the most ethnic-related genetic markers of the region. In this paper, the Y chromosome haplogroup of DNA from ancient East Asians was examined, in order to genetically link them to modern populations. Fifty-six human remains were sampled from five archaeological sites, primarily along the Yangtze River. Strict criteria were followed to eliminate potential contamination. Five SNPs from the Y chromosome were successfully amplified from most of the samples, with at least 62.5% of the samples belonging to the O haplogroup, similar to the frequency for modern East Asian populations. A high frequency of O1 was found in Liangzhu Culture sites

 

Locations of the Archaeological Sites, Cultures and the Distributions of Y SNP Haplogroups

 

Case Counts of Y SNP Haplogroups of the Archaeological Sites

 

 

Liangzhu Culture

Photo of Jade cong with taotie motif, Liangzhu Culture, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC

The Liangzhu culture (良渚文化) (3400-2250 BC) was the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta of China. Its area of influence extended from around Lake Tai north to Nanjing and the Chang Jiang, east to Shanghai and the sea, and south to Hangzhou. The culture was highly stratified, as jade, silk, ivory and lacquer artifacts were found exclusively in elite burials, while pottery was more commonly found in the burial plots of poorer individuals. The type site at Liangzhu was discovered in Yuhang County, Zhejiang and initially excavated by Shi Xingeng in 1936.

The culture possessed advanced agriculture, included irrigation, paddy rice cultivation and aquaculture. Houses were often constructed with stilts on rivers or shorelines.

The jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked large ritual jades, commonly incised with the taotie motif. The most exemplary artefacts from the culture were its cong (cylinders). The largest cong discovered weighed 3.5 kg. Bi (discs) and Yue axes (ceremonial axes) were also found. Jade pendants were also found, designed with engraved representations of small birds, turtles and fish. Many Liangzhu jade artefacts had a white milky bone-like aspect due to its tremolite rock origin and influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites, although jade made from actinolite and serpentine were also commonly found.

A neolithic altar from the Liangzhu culture, excavated at Yaoshan in Zhejiang, demonstrates that religious structures were elaborate and made of carefully positioned piles of stones and rock walls: this indicates that religion was of considerable importance. The altar has three levels, the highest being a platform of rammed earth. Three additional platforms were paved with cobblestones. There are the remains of a stone wall. On the altar are twelve graves in two rows. A new discovery of ancient city wall base relics was announced by the Zhejiang provincial government on November 29, 2007. All the relics previously identified were parts of city construction. It was concluded the site was the ancient capital of the Liangzhu Kingdom, whose influence spread as far as modern-day Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Shandong Provinces. A new Liangzhu Culture Museum was completed in 2008 and opened late in the year. It is 17.5 kilometers north-west of the north-east corner of West Lake in Hangzhou.

 

 

* Paternal Genetic Affinity Between Western Austronesians and Daic Populations by Hui Li, et al.

Abstract

Background: Austronesian is a linguistic family spread in most areas of the Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. Based on their linguistic similarity, this linguistic family included Malayo-Polynesians and Taiwan aborigines. The linguistic similarity also led to the controversial hypothesis that Taiwan is the homeland of all the Malayo-Polynesians, a hypothesis that has been debated by ethnologists, linguists, archaeologists, and geneticists. It is well accepted that the Eastern Austronesians (Micronesians and Polynesians) derived from the Western Austronesians (Island Southeast Asians and Taiwanese), and that the Daic populations on the mainland are supposed to be the headstream of all the Austronesian populations.

Results: In this report, we studied 20 SNPs and 7 STRs in the non-recombining region of the 1,509 Y chromosomes from 30 China Daic populations, 23 Indonesian and Vietnam Malayo-Polynesian populations, and 11 Taiwan aboriginal populations. These three groups show many resemblances in paternal lineages. Admixture analyses demonstrated that the Daic populations are hardly influenced by Han Chinese genetically, and that they make up the largest proportion of Indonesians. Most of the population samples contain a high frequency of haplogroup O1a-M119, which is nearly absent in other ethnic families. The STR network of haplogroup O1a* illustrated that Indonesian lineages did not derive from Taiwan aborigines as linguistic studies suggest, but from Daic populations.

Conclusion: We show that, in contrast to the Taiwan homeland hypothesis, the Island Southeast Asians do not have a Taiwan origin based on their paternal lineages. Furthermore, we show that both Taiwan aborigines and Indonesians likely derived from the Daic populations based on their paternal lineages. These two populations seem to have evolved independently of each other. Our results indicate that a super-phylum, which includes Taiwan aborigines, Daic, and Malayo-Polynesians, is genetically educible.

 

Geographic Distribution of Sampled Populations and Migration Routes Suggested by Y Chromosome Analysis

 

Haplotype Network of Y-STRs of Haplogroup O1a* Individuals

 

Excerpt: The age of the O1a* haplogroup was estimated in the network. The total age is 33765 ± 5221 years, which corresponds to the last Ice Age. The age of all the Daic samples in the network is 33193 ± 5577 years, close to the age of O1a*. It is not easy to estimate the real age of the Taiwan clusters as they overlap with the Daic haplotypes to a large extent. This kind of overlap also indicates multiple migrations from Daic populations to Taiwan aborigines. We estimated the age of the Taiwan cluster in the left side of the network to be 14659 ± 3110 years. The estimated age of all the Taiwan samples is 21268 ± 3148 years. Interestingly, this latter age is close to the age of the oldest human remains found in Taiwan, those of the Chochen Man. Therefore, we conclude that the migration of O1a* individuals from the mainland to Taiwan Island occurred during the Palaeolithic Age.

Because two fairly specific clusters of ISEA haplotypes can be observed in the network, we performed time estimates in both clusters. The age of the left ISEA cluster in the network is 9895 ± 2393 years, whereas that of the right cluster is 25880 ± 7137 years. The linguistic estimate for the origin of the Malayo-Polynesian is younger than that of our estimates, around 5000–6000 years ago. Moreover, little overlap between Daic haplotypes and ISEA haplotypes is observed in the network, which indicates bottleneck effects might have formed the two ISEA clusters during the emigration of ISEA populations out of the ancestral Daic populations. Geographically, the bottleneck might be the narrow seashore of Vietnam. Therefore, the O1a* haplogroup was most probably introduced into ISEA populations during the origin of the Malayo-Polynesians
more than 7500 years ago. However, the possibility of recent migrations of the O1a individuals into ISEA can not be ignored, because the genetic time estimate is not precise enough to eliminate such a possibility....

In fact, our observations are consistent with a monophyletic Austro-Tai super-phylum which contains Daic speakers, Malayo-Polynesians, and Taiwan aborigines. The observations presented in this study demonstrate that it is absolutely necessary to include Daic populations and ISEA in the Austronesian origin studies. Without these groups, Polynesians and Taiwan aborigines would have appeared most similar to each other, leading to the conclusion that all the Austronesians originated in Taiwan.

Our results suggest that the Gulf of Tonkin is more likely the homeland of the paternal lineages of ISEA....

 

Y-SNP Haplogroup Frequencies of the Newly Studied Samples (%)

 

Principal Component Plot of Y-SNP

Ethnic groups: AA, Austro-Asiatic speakers; AT, Altaic speakers; DC, Daic speakers; HM, Hmong-Mien speakers; MP, Malayo-Polynesian speakers; ST, Sino-Tibetan speakers; TA, Taiwan aborigines

 

 

Cham

Map of the Champa Kingdom

Cham are remnants of the Kingdom of Champa (7th to 15th centuries). They are closely related to other Austronesian peoples and speak Cham, a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family (Aceh-Chamic subgroup).

Records of the Champa kingdom go as far back as 2nd century AD China. At its height in the 9th century, the kingdom controlled the lands between Huế, in central Annam, to the Mekong Delta in Cochinchina. Its prosperity came from maritime trade in sandalwood and slaves and probably included piracy.

Prehistory: The people of Champa were descended from Malayo-Polynesian settlers who appear to have reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huynh culture in the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C. There are pronounced ceramic, industrial and funerary continuities with sites such as the Niah Caves in Sarawak, East Malaysia. Sa Huynh sites are rich in iron artifacts, by contrast with the Dong Son culture sites found in northern Vietnam and elsewhere in mainland Southeast Asia, where bronze artifacts are dominant.

The Sa Huỳnh Culture: The Sa Huynh culture is a late prehistoric metal age society on the central coast of Viet Nam. In 1909, about 200 jar burials were uncovered at Sa Huynh, a coastal village located south of Da Nang. Since then, many more burials have been found, at some 50 sites. The Sa Huynh shows a distinct regional Bronze Age culture, with its own styles of axes, daggers, and ornaments. Carbon dating has placed the Sa Huynh culture roughly the same time line with the Dong Son culture, that is about the first millennium BC. From about 200 AD, the central coast of Viet Nam was inhabited by the Chams, who had adopted elements of Indian political and religious culture. Recent researches by Vietnamese archaeologists has shown that the Chams are linguistic and cultural descendants of the Sa Huynh people. The uncovered artifacts show the Sa Huynh people were highly skilled craftsmen in the production of jewelry and ornaments made with hard stones and glass. Sa Huynh styled ornaments were also found in Thailand, Taiwan and Philippines suggesting they were traded with South East Asian neighbors, over land and maritime routes. Archaeologists also observe that iron seems to have been used by the Sa Huynh peoples when their Dong Son neighbors were still mostly using bronze.

 

* HLA Genetic Diversity and Linguistic Variation in East Asia by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

The “Least Controversial “Phylogeny of the 40 East Asian Languages

 

 

Austronesian Peoples

The Austronesian peoples are a population in Oceania and Southeast Asia that speaks languages of the Austronesian family. Austronesian peoples include: Taiwanese aborigines; the majority ethnic groups of East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei, Madagascar, Micronesia, and Polynesia, as well as the Polynesian peoples of New Zealand and Hawaii, and the Austronesian peoples of Melanesia. They are also found in Singapore, the Pattani region of Thailand, and the Cham areas of Vietnam (remnants of the Champa kingdom which covered central and southern Vietnam), Cambodia, and Hainan, China. The territories settled by Austronesian peoples are known collectively as Austronesia.

Prehistory and History: Archaeological evidence demonstrates a technological connection between the farming cultures of the south (Southeast Asia and Melanesia) and sites that are first known from mainland China, whereas a combination of archaeological and linguistic evidence has been interpreted as supporting a northern (southern China and Taiwan) origin for the Austronesian language family. In a recent treatment, all Austronesian languages were classified into 10 subfamilies, with all the extra-Formosan languages grouped in one subfamily and with representatives of the remaining 9 known only in Taiwan. It has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” — is broadly consistent with available data, concerns have been raised. Alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia.

Some western scholars believe Austronesian peoples originated on the island of Taiwan following the migration of pre-Austronesian speaking peoples from continental Asia approximately 10,000-6000 B.C. According to some linguists, due to a lengthy split from the Austro-Tai populations, the Proto-Austronesian language, the cultures and ethnic groups of the Austronesian peoples began on Taiwan approximately 6,000 years ago.

Austronesian peoples themselves have a variety of different traditions, and history of their origins. Some Indonesian scholars believe that the Austronesian peoples originated in Maritime Southeast Asia (modern day Indonesia, and the Philippines). However according to most Western scholars, Austronesian peoples originated on the island of Taiwan, and are spread as far away as Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, Easter Island, Maritime Southeast Asia, New Zealand, and to the rest of the Pacific Islands.

A study by Leeds University and published in Molecular Biology and Evolution, showed that mitochondrial DNA lineages have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) since modern humans arrived approximately 50,000 years ago. Population dispersals occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which resulted in migrations from the Philippine Islands to as far north as Taiwan within the last 10,000 years.

According to mainstream Western studies, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000-2500 B.C. Population growth primarily fueled this migration. These first settlers may have landed in northern Luzon in the archipelago of the Philippines, intermingling with the earlier Australo-Melanesian population who had inhabited the islands about 23,000 years earlier. Over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 B.C. and 500 A.D. respectively. The Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar.

Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 B.C. These people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Easter Island by 300 A.D., Hawaii by 400 A.D., and into New Zealand by 800 A.D. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia; the Austronesian peoples reached Madagascar by 0-500 A.D.

Genetic Studies: Genetic studies have been done on the people and related animals. The Haplogroup O1 (Y-DNA)a-M119 genetic marker is frequently detected in Austronesians, as well as some ethnic minorities in China (southern non-Han Chinese). Other genetic markers found in native Austronesian populations are Haplogroup C (Y-DNA) and Haplogroup O3 (Y-DNA).

 

 

Tai-Kadai Languages

The Tai-Kadai languages, also known as Daic, Kadai, Kradai, or Kra-Dai, are a language family of highly tonal languages found in southern China and Southeast Asia. They include Thai and Lao, the national languages of Thailand and Laos respectively. There are nearly 100 million speakers of these languages in the world. Ethnologue lists 92 languages in this family, with 76 of these languages being in the Kam-Tai branch.

The diversity of the Tai-Kadai languages in southeastern China, especially on Hainan, suggests that this is close to their homeland. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only in historic times, founding the nations that later became Thailand and Laos in what had been Austroasiatic territory.

External Relationships: The Tai-Kadai languages were formerly considered to be part of the Sino-Tibetan family, but outside of China they are now classified as an independent family. They contain large numbers of words that are similar in Sino-Tibetan languages. However, these are seldom found in all branches of the family, and do not include basic vocabulary, indicating that they are old loan words (Ostapirat 2005).

Several Western scholars have presented suggestive evidence that Tai-Kadai is related to or a branch of the Austronesian language family. There are a number of possible cognates in the core vocabulary. Among proponents, there is yet no agreement as to whether they are a sister group to Austronesian in a family called Austro-Tai, a backmigration from Taiwan to the mainland, or a later migration from the Philippines to Hainan during the Austronesian expansion.

In China, they are called Zhuang-Dong languages and are generally considered to be related to Sino-Tibetan languages along with the Miao-Yao languages. It is still a matter of discussion among Chinese scholars whether Kra languages such as Gelao, Qabiao, and Lachi can be included in Zhuang-Dong, since they lack the Sino-Tibetan similarities that are used to include other Zhuang-Dong languages in Sino-Tibetan.

 

 

Tai Peoples

The Tai (Chinese 泰) ethnicity refers collectively to the ethnic groups of southern China and Southeast Asia, stretching from Hainan to eastern India and from southern Sichuan to Laos, Thailand, and parts of Vietnam, which speak languages in the Tai family and share similar traditions and festivals, including Songkran. Despite never having a unified nation-state of their own, the peoples also have historically shared a vague idea of a "Siam" nation, corrupted to Shan or Assam in some places, and most self-identify as "Tai"

Origin of the Tai: Linguist Laurent Sagart recently hypothesized that the proto-Kradai language originated as an Austronesian language that migrants carried from Taiwan to mainland China. Afterwards, the language was then heavily influenced by local languages from Sino-Tibetan, Hmong-Mien, or other families, borrowing much vocabulary and converging typologically. Much closer to the present, some peoples speaking Tai languages migrated southward over the mountains into Southeast Asia, perhaps prompted by the coming of the Han Chinese to south China.

Linguistic heritage is not synonymous with genetic heritage, because of language shift where populations learn new languages. However, it is believed that the O1 Y-DNA haplogroup is associated with both the Austronesian people and the Tai. The prevalence of Y-DNA Haplogroup O1 among Austronesian and Tai peoples also suggests a common ancestry with the Sino-Tibetan, Austro-Asiatic, and Hmong-Mien peoples some 35,000 years ago in China. Y-DNA Haplogroup O2a is also found at high frequency among most Tai peoples, which is a trait that they share with the neighboring Austroasiatic peoples. Y-DNA Haplogroups O1 and O2a are subclades of O Y-DNA haplogroup, which itself is a subclade of Y-DNA Haplogroup K, a genetic mutation that is believed to have originated 40,000 yeas ago, somewhere between Iran and Central China.

Population in China: In southern China, people speaking Kam–Tai (Zhuang-Dong) languages are mainly found in Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, Hunan, Guangdong, and Hainan. According to statistics from the fourth census taken in China in 1990, the total population of these groups amounted to 23,262,000. Their distribution is as follows:

History in China: In China, Kadai languages are mainly distributed in a radial area from the western edge of Yunnan Province to Guangdong and Hainan Provinces. Most speakers live in compact communities. Some of them are scattered among the Han Chinese or other ethnic minorities. The Yue people, who covered a large area in South China in ancient times, were their common ancestors.

 

 

Austro-Tai Languages

Austro-Tai is a hypothesis that the Tai-Kadai and Austronesian language families of southern China and the Pacific are genealogically related.

The Tai-Kadai languages contain numerous similar forms with Austronesian which were noticed as far back as Schlegel in 1901. These are considered to be too many to explain as chance resemblance. The question then is whether they are due to language contact—that is, borrowing—or to common descent—that is, a genealogical relationship.

The Relationship: Among scholars who accept the evidence as definitive, there is disagreement as to the nature of the relationship. Benedict attempted to show that Tai-Kadai has features which cannot be accounted for by proto-Austronesian, and that therefore it must be a separate family coordinate with Austronesian (a sister relationship). Ostapirat concluded that these reconstructed linguistic features are spurious. However, he could not rule out the possibility that Tai-Kadai tone cannot be explained, and so leaves the question open pending further reconstruction of proto-Austronesian. He supports the consensus hypothesis of several scholars that proto-Austronesian was spoken on Formosa or adjacent areas of coastal China, and that the likely homeland of proto-Tai-Kadai was coastal Fujian or Guangdong as part of the neolithic Longshan culture. The spread of the Tai-Kadai peoples may have been aided by agriculture, but any who remained near the coast were eventually absorbed by the Chinese.

Sagart, on the other hand, holds that Tai-Kadai is a branch of Austronesian which migrated back to the mainland from northeastern Formosa long after Formosa was settled, but probably before the expansion of Malayo-Polynesian out of Formosa. The language was then largely relexified from what he believes may have been an Austro-Asiatic language. Robert Blust (1999) suggests that proto-Tai-Kadai speakers originated in the northern Philippines and migrated from there to Hainan island (hence the diversity of Tai-Kadai languages on that island), and were radically restructured following contact with Hmong-Mien and Sinitic.

However, Ostapirat maintains that Tai-Kadai could not descend from Malayo-Polynesian in the Philippines, and likely not from the languages of eastern Formosa either. His evidence is in the Tai-Kadai sound correspondences, which reflect Austronesian distinctions that were lost in Malayo-Polynesian and even Eastern Formosan. These are proto-AN *t and *C, also *n and *N, which were distinct in proto-Tai-Kadai but which fell together as *t and *n in proto-MP and Eastern Formosan; and *S, which is *s in proto-Tai-Kadai but *h in proto-MP. There are also Austro-Tai roots which are not attested from Malayo-Polynesian, such as *Cumay "bear". (Western MP has *biRuaŋ.)

Sagart proposes an Eastern Formosan–Malayo-Polynesian connection with Tai-Kadai, based on words such as proto-Tai-Kadai *maNuk and Eastern Formosan *manuk "bird", as compared to proto-Austronesian, where the word for "bird" was *qayam, and *maNuk meant "chicken", and a few other words such as *lima "five" and *-mu "thou" which have not been reconstructed for proto-Austronesian. However, Ostapirat notes Tai-Kadai retains the Austronesian *N in this word, which had been lost from Eastern Formosan and Malayo-Polynesian, and that a change in meaning from "chicken" to "bird" could easily have happened independently, for example among proto-Tai-Kadai speakers when they borrowed the mainland word *ki "chicken" (cognate with Old Chinese *kej and Miao /qai/).

Sagart suggests that Austro-Tai is ultimately related to the Sino-Tibetan languages and has its origin in the Neolithic communities of the coastal regions of prehistoric North China or East China. Ostapirat, by contrast, sees connections with the Austro-Asiatic languages (in Austric), as Benedict had. Reid notes that the two approaches are not incompatible, if Austric is valid and can be connected to Sino-Tibetan.

 

 

Yue Peoples

Yue (越 or 鉞; also seen as Yueh or Yuet) refers to ancient semi-Sinicized or non-Sinicized peoples of southern China, originally those along the eastern coastline of present-day Zhejiang province. In archaic Chinese, a number of characters (越, 粵, 鉞) were often used interchangeably to represent the same meaning.

Origins and Ancient Usage: In ancient times, the northern Han Chinese referred to the peoples to their south collectively as the Yue. Historian Luo Xianglin has suggested that these peoples shared a common ancestry with the Xia Dynasty. There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. Historical texts often refer to the Hundred Yue tribes (百越. There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. The "Treatise of Geography" in Han Shu notes: "In the seven or eight thousand li from Jiaozhi to Kuaiji (modern southern Jiangsu or northern Zhejiang) the Hundred Yue are everywhere, each with their own clans." Just as the term Celt was used by the Greeks to describe what they perceived to be a broad cultural group, so the term Yue was a culturally relative term for the ancient Chinese. Also like "Celt", Yue is now used in a number of different ways.

Ethnolinguists have suggested that the pronunciaton of Yue may be related to a type of hemp produced in what is now Zhejiang. The character itself is related to the character for "ceremonial axe" (鉞), usually considered a symbol of royal or imperial authority. A number of stone axes have been found in the area of Hangzhou, and there is evidence that the ceremonial axe was a southern invention.

Sinification and Displacement: From the Ninth century BC, two northern Yue peoples, the Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue, were increasingly influenced by their Chinese neighbours to their north. These two states were based in the areas of what is now southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang respectively. Their aristocratic elite learned the written Chinese language and adopted Chinese political institutions and military technology. Traditional accounts attribute the cultural change to the Grand Earl of Wu (吳太伯), a Zhou prince who had fled to the south. The marshy lands of the south gave Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue unique characteristics. They did not engage in extensive agrarian agriculture, relying instead more heavily on aquaculture. Water transport was paramount in the south, so the two states became advanced in shipbuilding and developed riverine warfare technology. They were also known for their fine swords.

In the Spring and Autumn Period, the two states, now called Wu and Yue, were becoming increasingly involved in Chinese politics. In 512 BC, Wu launched a large expedition against the large state of Chu, based in the Middle Yangtze River. A similar campaign in 506 succeeded in sacking the Chu capital Ying. Also in that year, war broke out between Wu and Yue and continued with breaks for the next three decades. In 473 BC, the Yue king Goujian finally conquered Wu and was acknowledged by the northern states of Qi and Jin. In 333 BC, Yue was in turn conquered by Chu. The Kings of the state of Yue, and therefore its succesor state Minyue also claimed to be descended from Yu the Great of the chinese Xia dynasty. According to Sima Qian, Wu was founded by Wu Taibo, a brother of zhou wu wang, the King of the chinese Zhou dynasty.

After the unification of China by Qin Shi Huang, it became incorporated into the Chinese empire. The Qin armies also advanced south along the Xiang River to modern Guangdong and set up commanderies along the main communication routes. Throughout the Han Dynasty period two groups of Yue were identified, that of the Nan-Yue in the far south, who lived mainly in the area of what is now Guangdong, Guangxi, and Vietnam; and that of the Min-Yue who lay to the southeast, centred on the Min River in modern Fujian. The Kings of Minyue claimed to be descended from Yu the Great of the chinese Xia dynasty.

Sinification of these peoples was brought about by a combination of imperial military power, regular settlement and Chinese refugees. The difficulty of logistics and the malarial climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue peoples a slow process. When the Chinese came into contact with local Yue peoples, they often wrested control of territory from them or subjugated them by force. When a serious rebellion broke out in 40 AD by the Trung Sisters in what is now modern Vietnam, a force of some 10,000 imperial troops was dispatched under General Ma Yuan. Between 100 and 184 no less than seven outbreaks of violence took place, often calling for strong defensive action by the Chinese.

As Chinese migrants gradually increased, the Yue were gradually forced into poorer land on the hills and in the mountains. Unlike the nomadic peoples of Central Asia, such as the Xiongnu or the Xianbei, however, the Yue peoples never posed any serious threat to Chinese expansion or control. Sometimes they staged small scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements - termed "rebellions" by traditional historians. The Chinese for their part regarded them as being highly uncivilised and prone to fight one another.

While most Yue peoples were eventually sinicized, the Kam-Tai (Daic): Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Sui (Shui), Kam (Dong), Hlai (Li), Mulam, Maonan, Ong-Be (Lingao), Thai, Lao, Shan, and Vietnamese peoples retained their ethnic identities. Some of these peoples also have their own nation-states today. In particular, the Vietnamese people broke free from Chinese rule in the 10th century and have their own state to this day.

Modern Usage: In modern Chinese, the characters of "越" and "粵" (both yuè) are differentiated. The former is used to refer to the original territory of the Yue Kingdom, the area of what is now northern Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and Shanghai, especially the areas around Shaoxing and Ningbo. The opera of Zhejiang, for example, is called "Yue Opera" (yueju, 越劇). The first character "越" is also associated with Vietnam. The second character "粵" (yuè) is associated with the southern province of Guangdong. Popularly called "Cantonese", both the standard form and regional dialects of the Cantonese language(Yue language) are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macau and in many Cantonese communities around the world.

Legacy of the Yue Peoples: The fall of the Han Dynasty and the succeeding period of division sped up the process of sinification. Periods of instability and war in northern China, such as the Northern and Southern Dynasties and during the Song Dynasty led to mass migrations of Chinese. Intermarriage and cross-cultural dialogue has led to a mixture of Chinese and non-Chinese peoples in the south. By the Tang Dynasty, the term "Yue" had largely become a regional designation rather than a cultural one A state in modern Zhejiang province during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, for example, called itself "Wu-Yue". Likewise, the "Viet" in "Vietnam" (literally, "Viet South") is a cognate of the "Yue".

The impact of Yue culture on Chinese culture has not been determined authoritatively but it is clear that it is significant. The languages of the ancient states of Wu and Yue form the basis the modern Wu language and to some extent the Min languages of Fujian. Linguistic anthropologists have also determined that a number of Chinese words can be traced to ancient Yue words. An example is the word "jiang" (江), meaning river. To some extent, some remnants of the Yue peoples and their culture can also be seen in some minority groups of China and the Vietnamese people retain the identity.

 

 

中國南方人

南北方人: 對於「南方人」或「北方人」等定義上，比地理上的「南方」與「北方」概念更加複雜，主要是針對漢族（或已漢化民族）而言。往往根據其語言文化、生活習俗等加以區別，但更主要的是自我認同方面，甚至認為南北其中一方更有地方優越性。

中國人通常指的南方人，以廣東、福建、浙江、上海人為代表。南方各地因歷史因素，發展出各種互不相通的語言（同樣不能與北方話相通）及文化。在認同上，幾乎所有南方地區的人都認同自己是南方人，尤其廣東、福建、浙江等。

中國人通常指的北方人，是以北京人為代表，及其周邊省份、東北等地的通用官話的漢滿蒙回四族，有時亦包括一同生活的其它的已漢化民族，如朝鮮族等。中國北方民俗曲藝見於全國各大媒體之上，如中央臺的春晚小品。香港人或廣東人所指的北方人幾乎是操普通話的人，或是南嶺以北的外省人，這個定義的「北方人」被粵港媒體廣泛使用（但是香港更習慣稱「內地人」）。這種北方人的概念也可指代日常使用普通話的人群，即使廣西或海南人使用普通話，也被稱為北方人。

南方演化: 南方人的祖先可以被認為是早先居住在江南的漢人和越人，居住在嶺南地區的南越人，以及一部分衣冠南渡的中原漢人、在其他南方百越地區再陸續融入了一些傣人與南島語系族人的基因。如O2a，是泰國、壯族、傣族、越南等民族最常見的類型，在今天的泰國人中大致有65%的為這種類型，在中國，廣府、潮州有一定比例，大致在15-20%，北方漢族和中部漢族，一般比較少見。

這 些產生了顯而易見的天然差異，這些差異甚至在外貌上都能體現出來，例如湖南人和東北人、廣東人和山東人、臺灣人和北京人，都各有不同的典型特徵，在外貌和 體格上就足以分辨，而這些特徵大體上可以將中國人劃分為南方中國人和北方中國人兩類。中國的語言、飲食、與大眾娛樂方式也同樣帶有顯著的不同。南方與北方的各個朝代都對南北兩方顯出高度兩極化的看法。南方人與北方人互稱對方為野蠻人，不認同對方的生活習慣。蒙古人所創建的元朝也將漢族人分割為兩個社會階層來強化這樣的觀念。北方人（漢人）的地位較南方人（南人）為高，其實兩者分別為元朝所屬次低與最低的階級。

需要指出的是，儘管存在著差異，無論南方或者北方，今天漢族的主體70%以上,就是5000年前仰韶文化和龍山文化（O3）居民的後代。而良渚文化、吳城文化、大溪文化古代居民在漢族中也有比較大遺產，大致佔了10%-35%比例，平均大致為20%，尤其在南部漢族中，這三個文化對北部的漢族影響比較小。

 

 

Quanzhou

Quanzhou (泉州) is a prefecture-level city in Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two (Ningde and Nanping) and faces the Taiwan Strait. In older English works, its name may appear as Chinchew or Chinchu or Zayton.

History: Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.

Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate. In 1357 however a military revolt by the local Persian militia led to a ten-year rebellion that resulted in large civilian casualties in Quanzhou.

Of the Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.

Quanzhou Overseas Relations Museum preserves a number of relics related to the Quanzhou's era as a major seaport. A particularly important exhibit is the so-called Quanzhou ship, a sea-going junk that sunk some time after 1272, and was recovered in 1973–74.

Quanzhou is also a migration source of many Overseas Chinese living in South East Asia and to Taiwan during the last couple of centuries.

Dialect: Local people speak a variant of Hokkien which is similar to Amoy and Taiwanese. In Mandarin Chinese this dialect is called "Minnan Hua", which can be translated as "the language of South Fujian". It is essentially the same dialect spoken in Xiamen and Zhangzhou, and it bears little similarity with the official Chinese Mandarin.

 

The Travels of Marco Polo by Marco Polo (e-book: vol.1, vol. 2)

 

 

 

 

 

* Maritime Silk Road of Quanzhou - Once the world biggest port by whatsonxiamen.com

Excerpt: Quanzhou, situated on the southeastern coast of East China's Fujian Province, was an important harbor and the starting point on the Maritime Silk Road. In ancient times, citong, or the paulownia trees that bear fiery red flowers every spring, were cultivated widely in the region to a circumference of ten kilometers, hence the nickname "Citong City." Visitors from the Middle East mistook it for the olive tree as zaitun in Arabic. 

During the Maritime Silk Road ear, the name of no city was more resonant than Zaitun, where hundreds of huge ships docked in the bay. Boats loaded with goods would shuttle back and forth between the ships and the wharves, the latter already piled high with goods. After unloading items such as spices, ivory, pearls, hawksbill turtles, and rhinoceros horns, the ships would then take on silk, porcelain, tea, and Chinese arts and crafts before sailing back home. 

The earliest records of trading between Quanzhou and foreign countries dated back to the 6th century. By the Tang Dynasty (618-907), Quanzhou had already become one of China's four greatest ports. Its foreign trade reached the peak of prosperity in the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). The four great travelers of the medieval West -- Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta, Giovanni Marignolli, and Odoric -- all wrote of the openness and prosperity of Quanzhou. The North African traveler Ibn Battuta compared it to the Egyptian port of Alexandria, and Marco Polo described it as "one of the largest ports in the world."

 

 

* Of the City and Great Haven of Zayton from The Travels of Marco Polo

Excerpt: When you have accomplished those five days' journey you arrive at the very great and noble city of ZAYTON, which is also subject to Fuju.

At this city you must know is the Haven of Zayton, frequented by all the ships of India, which bring thither spicery and all other kinds of costly wares. It is the port also that is frequented by all the merchants of Manzi, for hither is imported the most astonishing quantity of goods and of precious stones and pearls, and from this they are distributed all over Manzi. And I assure you that for one shipload of pepper that goes to Alexandria or elsewhere, destined for Christendom, there come a hundred such, aye and more too, to this haven of Zayton; for it is one of the two greatest havens in the world for commerce.

(By the time the Polos reached China the second time, the Khan had subjugated Southern China, which the book calls "Manzi." However, he needed officials to help rule it and did not yet trust the newly-conquered Chinese. Along with many others, Marco became an official of the empire, a job that soon had him traveling over large parts of China - On the trail of Marco Polo by wikitravel)

The Great Kaan derives a very large revenue from the duties paid in this city and haven; for you must know that on all the merchandize imported, including precious stones and pearls, he levies a duty of ten per cent., or in other words takes tithe of everything. Then again the ship's charge for freight on small wares is 30 per cent., on pepper 44 per cent., and on lignaloes, sandalwood, and other bulky goods 40 per cent., so that between freight and the Kaan's duties the merchant has to pay a good half the value of his investment [though on the other half he makes such a profit that he is always glad to come back with a new supply of merchandize]. But you may well believe from what I have said that the Kaan hath a vast revenue from this city.

There is a great abundance here of all provision for every necessity of man's life. [It is a charming country, and the people are very quiet, and fond of an easy life. Many come hither from Upper India to have their bodies painted with the needle in the way we have elsewhere described, there being many adepts at this craft in the city.]

Let me tell you also that in this province there is a town called TYUNJU, where they make vessels of porcelain of all sizes, the finest that can be imagined. They make it nowhere but in that city, and thence it is exported all over the world. Here it is abundant and very cheap, insomuch that for a Venice groat you can buy three dishes so fine that you could not imagine better.

I should tell you that in this city (i.e. of Zayton) they have a peculiar language. [For you must know that throughout all Manzi they employ one speech and one kind of writing only, but yet there are local differences of dialect, as you might say of Genoese, Milanese, Florentines, and Neapolitans, who though they speak different dialects can understand one another.]

 

 

Minnan Language

Chinese language tree from glossika.com

The Southern Min languages, or Min Nan (閩南語), ("Southern Fujian" language), are a family of Chinese languages spoken in southern Fujian and its neighboring regions, in Taiwan, and by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora.

Southern Min forms part of the Min language group, alongside several other divisions. The Min languages/dialects are part of the Chinese language group, itself a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Southern Min is not mutually intelligible with Eastern Min, Cantonese, or Mandarin. As with other varieties of Chinese, there is a political dispute as to whether the Southern Min language should be called a language or a dialect.

Geographic Distribution: Southern Min is spoken in the southern part of Fujian province, three southeastern counties of Zhejiang province, the Zhoushan archipelago off Ningbo in Zhejiang, and the eastern part of Guangdong province (Chaoshan region).

A form of Southern Min akin to that spoken in southern Fujian is also spoken in Taiwan, where it has the native name of Tâi-oân-oē or Hō-ló-oē. The (sub)ethnic group for which Southern Min is considered a native language is known as the Holo (Hō-ló) or Hoklo, the main ethnicity of Taiwan.

There are many Southern Min speakers also among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. Many ethnic Chinese emigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian, and brought the language to what is now Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies) and present day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly Malaya, Burma, and the British Straits Settlements). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as Hokkien, Hokkienese, Fukien or Fookien in Southeast Asia, and is very much like Taiwanese. Many Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese also originated in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong province and speak Teochew, the variant of Southern Min from that region. Southern Min is reportedly the native language of up to 98.5% of the community of ethnic Chinese in the Philippines, among whom it is also known as Lan-nang or Lán-lâng-oē ("Our people’s language"). Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore with the largest being Hoklos and the second largest being the Teochews.

Classification: Southern Fujian is home to three main Hokkien dialects. They are known by the geographic locations to which they correspond (listed north to south):

As Xiamen is the principal city of southern Fujian, the Xiamen dialect is considered the most important, or even prestige dialect. The Xiamen dialect is a hybrid of the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects. The Xiamen dialect (also known as the Amoy dialect) has played an influential role in history, especially in the relations of Western nations with China, and was one of the most frequently learned of all Chinese languages/dialects by Westerners during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century.

Varieties: Xiamen speech is a hybrid of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Taiwanese is also a hybrid of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Taiwanese in northern Taiwan tends to be based on Quanzhou speech, whereas the Taiwanese spoken in southern Taiwan tends to be based on Zhangzhou speech. There are minor variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The grammar is basically the same. Additionally, Taiwanese includes several dozen loanwords from Japanese. In contrast, Teochew speech is significantly different from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech in both pronunciation and vocabulary.

Cultural and Political Role: Jean DeBernardi of the University of Alberta stated that Min Nan (閩南話), is a Sinitic language with more than 38 millions users, which is 4% of the 1 billion speakers of Sinitic languages. In addition to its high social value as a marker of in-group status among the various communities, it has acquired an additional political value in Taiwan, representing the aspirations of the Taiwanese independence movement in the face of fears of reunification with Mainland China.

Jean DeBernardi considered calling Min Nan a ‘dialect’ "is a misnomer", as the languages of China are as diverse as Romance languages. While Northern China is claimed to be relatively homogeneous linguistically (although Jerry Norman observes that “many varieties of Mandarin in Shanxi and the Northwest are totally incomprehensible to a Beijing speaker”), Southern China has six major ‘dialect’ groups, which are mutually incomprehensible tongues.

Since the Guomindang's 1945 defeat in Mainland China and its subsequent retreat to Taiwan, Mandarin has been encouraged at the expense of Taiwanese. Min Nan, though spoken by an estimated 80% of the Taiwan population, has been regarded as "a substandard language with no grammar and no written form, inadequate and unsuitable for cultivated discussion”.

Many older Min Nan speakers in both Tainan and Xiamen expressed the view that Min Nan was superior to Mandarin, which was viewed as a recently invented language lacking the historical roots of Southern Min... the promotion of Mandarin in both Taiwan and the PRC was a means of promoting the political dominance of Northern China, and speculated that politicians feared the strength of Min Nan people, who... had been conomically successful everywhere they have lived and worked.

 

 

日治時期台灣閩粵原住民分佈概圖

 

 

泉州

同安區別稱「銀城」、「銀同」，原屬於福建泉州府，現改劃為福建省廈門市的一個行政區，也是該市最大的行政區，地處閩省東南沿海、「閩南金三角」的心臟地帶。

同安建縣於西晉太康三年（公元282年）。五代後唐長興四年（933年）復置。 直至民國三年（1914年），同安縣轄域包括現在的廈門市、金門縣及龍海市東北部。

安溪縣位於福建省東南沿海，廈、漳、泉閩南金三角西北部，隸屬泉州市。有漢族、畲族等多個民族，以茶業聞名全中國，號稱中國茶都。

安溪是著名的僑鄉，許多安溪先民遠渡重洋到台灣，甚至南洋拓展新天地。在台灣，有兩百餘萬人口祖籍安溪，約佔台灣人口的十分之一。清朝時，因安溪本地的大學士李光地家族反對台灣的明鄭政權之故，安溪移民是泉州諸縣邑之中，最晚來台的。而台灣，也有許多名人祖籍安溪縣，如大企業家：台塑集團創辦者王永慶、王永在兄弟，大同公司創辦者林尚志、林挺生父子，台灣五大家族的基隆顏家，瑞芳礦業名人李建興、李建和兄弟。政治方面，則有：民主進步黨創黨元老黃信介，台灣總統府資政前台北市長高玉樹，曾任台北市代理市長的周百鍊等。在印尼、馬來西亞、新加坡，各約有20萬人口祖籍安溪。在東南亞，也有許多名人祖籍安溪縣，如大企業家：馬來西亞雲頂集團的創辦人林梧桐等。政治方面，則有：新加坡國會議員王世豐等。

三邑，也就是福建泉州府的晉江、南安、惠安三縣。一般台灣所稱之三邑，即指泉州三邑。

在台灣清領時期，大量遷移至台灣的該三縣居民，在泉州移民中居大多數，在台灣，如清朝即相當程度開發的台北、彰化、嘉義、台南等地，也比例甚高，甚至與漳州府移民人數不相上下。

在台北，三邑移民以艋舺龍山寺為中心，頗得商業利益。也為了利益，參與、引發了許多歷史重要事件，如驅逐勢力範圍內的泉州同安人之頂下郊拚等。

通常來說，泉州三邑的建築，宗教，以及生活習慣影響台灣甚鉅，比方廟宇建築，台灣喪葬習俗，語言腔調等，如台北的艋舺青山王廟、艋舺龍山寺，都是泉州三邑人的信仰中心。

 

 

Huang (surname)

Huang (黄) is a Chinese surname that means "golden yellow", or literally "yellow." While Huáng is the pinyin romanisation of the word, it may also be romanised as Houang, Hoang, Wong, Vong, Hung, Hong, Bong, Eng, Ng, Uy, Wee, Oi, Oei or Ooi, Ong, Hwang, or Ung due to pronunciations of the word in different dialects and languages. The surname is known as Hoàng or as Huỳnh in Vietnamese, and Hwang, Whang in Korean.

Huang is the 7th most common surname in China. The population of Huangs in China and Taiwan was estimated at more than 29 million in 2000; it was also the surname of more than 2 million overseas Chinese, 4.3 million Vietnamese (5.1%), and an estimated 1 million Koreans (The 2000 census of South Korea revealed it was the surname for 644,294 South Koreans, ranked 17th).

Pronunciations

黃姓是現今台灣第三大姓、中國大陸第七大姓氏，在《百家姓》中排名第96位，但根據戶籍管理部門的「全國公民身份信息系統」（NCIIS），黃姓便是第八大姓。黃姓人口在廣東省最多，佔全國總黃姓人口的約19%，是廣東和香港第三大姓。

由於黃、王兩姓不但常見、又音近（贛語、吳語、閩東語、粵語等，甚至同音），故在說明時，常以「大肚黃」、「草頭黃」或「江夏黃」作為強調，其中又以「草頭黃」最常用。由於俗體字的寫法「黃」字寫成草字頭。不過草字頭的部首為艸部，「黃」字本身即是一個部首黃部。

根據1977年中國史學家李棟明，在《東方雜誌》發表的一篇有關「姓」的論文上指出，黃姓是全球華人十大姓之一。

黃姓的起源如下：

一、出自嬴姓：據《諸暨孝義黃氏族譜》所載，黃氏為嬴姓十四氏之一。帝舜時，東夷部落首領伯益因助禹治水 有功，故受帝舜賜姓嬴。《漢書·郡國志》曰：「故黃國，贏姓。」

二、出自金天氏：台駘是少皋金天氏的曾孫，因治水有功，顓頊封他到汾川（今山西汾水流域）。其後人曾在春秋時其建立沈、姒、蓐、黃等國，周初，為晉所滅，子孫遂以國為氏。這支贏姓黃氏，主要集中分布在今山西一帶，是為山西黃氏。

三、古代南方蠻族有黃姓。在廣西南寧一帶。武陵溪人、峒人和壯族等少數民族中，都有黃姓。《新唐書》記載：「邕管（在廣西境內）蠻有黃姓。唐黃少卿、少高、少溫是。」其實，此支黃氏乃是戰國時期，南下加入到江南「蠻族」地區的黃國遺民的後裔。

四、出自近代其它民族。一為避亂時改姓，如滿族之「伊喇氏、西林覺羅氏、鄂吉氏、鄂佳氏、那拉納喇氏」，亦或回族之「蒲氏」。或是如台灣原住民漢化時由當權者、漢人賜姓。

五、他姓改為黃姓。上古時候，黃、王同音，故有的王姓改為黃姓；還有其他原因改姓黃的：如陸姓、巫姓、吳姓、金姓改黃姓等等。

分佈狀況: 多在福建、廣東等南方省份，計有臨江、淮南、汝南、南陽、零陵、巴西、河陽、新安、金華、邵武、固始、信州、旴江等。約莫於明、清代之後，遷往東南亞各地。此外，在壯族、土家族、回族等少數民族中，也有不少黃姓人。

黃國，嬴姓諸侯國，東夷少昊的後裔，是黃夷的後代。顓頊之曾孫陸終之子惠連所創，商代黃夷已在淮水之濱建立國家，與商王的關係不是十分和諧，卜辭中有「伐於黃尹」的記載。周人滅商後，黃人歸服，得以保留。從出土的東周時期黃國及相關的青銅器看，嬴姓黃國與姬姓曾國等一直保持婚姻関係。

黃國故城位於河南省信陽市潢川縣西北6公里處的隆古鄉。城址長方形，周長6700米，城墻殘高5公尺-7公尺，時代為西周到春秋時期。在黃國故城西南約20公里的光山縣寶相寺一帶，發現黃國貴族墓地。1983年發掘出黃君孟夫婦墓，1988年發掘出黃季佗父墓。在黃國疆域內的羅山、光山、潢川等地都出土不少珍貴的黃國文物，時代多為春秋早期。

東夷(Dongyi )是中國古代，尤其是商朝、周朝時期，對東部部族的稱呼。隨著商代的東夷與華夏的融合，東夷後來改為對東方外族的泛稱。其認定範圍也隨之更改。從黃帝時期的山東，到河南一帶, 再到日後秦漢時期的朝鮮半島，日本列島。(朝鮮和韓國認為：現代朝鮮人可能是東夷的一支。) 在《三國志·魏書》中，扶餘、高句麗、沃沮、東濊也是東夷。唐杜佑《通典》將朝鮮、新羅、倭、高句麗、流求等歸入東夷，明代嚴從簡將日本、朝鮮、琉球歸入東夷。

東夷文化是中國最古老的文明之一。東夷文化的許多方面都與中原文明不分伯仲。東夷人是中國最古老文字、弓箭、禮制和金屬的發明和使用者。

據《左傳‧昭公四年》記載，商紂王派大軍征伐東夷，使國力損耗，結果被周武王乘虛擊敗，商朝因而滅亡。《左傳》稱：「紂克東夷而損其身」。

東夷文化: 東夷文化是中國最古老的文明之一。東夷文化的許多方面都與中原文明不分伯仲。

東夷人的文字是中國最早的文字之一，而且可能是商代甲骨文的重要來源之一。其中的 "旦、鉞、斤、皇、封、酒、拍、昃"，目前還在漢字中沿用。

據中國典籍記載，東夷人是弓箭的發明者。《說文解字·矢部》載:「古者夷牟初作矢」。《禮記·射義》中也載：「揮作弓，夷牟作矢。」

東夷擁有很高的陶瓷製作技術。東夷墓葬中出土的大量鳥形的陶瓷表明，東夷人以鳥為圖騰，是一個崇尚鳥的民族。東夷人同時也是中國最早使用銅和鐵的民族。

龍山文化的研究表明，東夷人也是禮制的發明者。龍山文化禮製表明其社會階級和國家的形成。中國學者俞偉超認為「如果4000多年前不發生這次大洪水，我國最初的王朝也許而且應該是由東夷建立的。」

東夷文化列表

 

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HLA: DRB1*0403/ DRB1*1602

Mackay Report: 組織抗原的部分，您可參考上述結果及附表資料，依照您的家族歷史，推測祖先可能的來源。如您家族中傳言有台灣原住民 (Taiwanese aborigines) 祖先的血緣，根據DRB1*0403及DRB1*1602在台灣的分佈情形，則是有可能的。

 

 

DRB1* 0403

Mackay Report: DRB1* 0403 基因主要出現於大洋洲群島(Pacific Islands)、及美洲(Americas)的部分族群中，在非洲、及歐洲人中則較少見(見附表1)。在台灣 (Taiwan)，DRB1* 0403 於閩南 (Minnan)、客家 (Hakka)的頻率平均為5.8 %；於平埔族(lowland aborigines)中以西拉雅族 (Siraya) 具有最高的頻率表現(約9.5 %)；此外亦可見於高山原住民 (highland aborigines) 族群(頻率範圍為2.0 ~ 13.0 %)，其中於布農族 (Bunun) 有大於13% 的頻率分佈

 

Frequency of HLA-DRB1*0403 in the Pacific Islands

Population Frequency
38.0%
31.0%
26.0%
Cook Islands Niue
22.9%
20.2%
Cook Islands Rarotonga
18.0%
17.2%
17.0%
Samoa pop2
16.0%
Western Samoa and Tokelau
15.7%
Papua New Guinea Trobriand Islanders
12.3%
New Zealand Maori
11.3%
Samoa West
11.3%
11.2%
Papua New Guinea lowlanders Roro
9.6%
Papua New Guinea New Britain Rabaul
9.2%

 

 

Pacific Islanders

Young Samoan women c. 1902

Pacific Islander (or Pacific Person, pl: Pacific People, also called Oceanic[s]), is a geographic term to describe the Austronesian inhabitants of any of the three major sub-regions of Oceania: Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, these three regions, together with their islands consist of:

Polynesia: The islands scattered across a triangle covering the east-central region of the Pacific Ocean. The triangle is bounded by the Hawaiian islands in the north, New Zealand in the west, and Easter Island in the east. The rest of Polynesia comprises Samoan islands (American Samoa and Samoa), the Cook Islands, French Polynesia (Tahiti and The Society Islands, Marquesas Islands, Austral Islands, and the Tuamotu Archipelago), Niue Island, Tokelau and Tuvalu, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, and Pitcairn Island.

Melanesia: The island of New Guinea, the Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagos, the Admiralty Islands, and Bougainville Island (which make up the independent state of Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands (part of the Solomon Islands), New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and various smaller islands.

Micronesia: The islands of Kiribati, Guam, Nauru, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Palau, and the Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae, all in the Caroline Islands).

Excluded: Inhabitants of the following islands and regions are not considered to be Pacific Islanders: Russia's Kuril Islands, Alaska's Aleutian Islands, Taiwan, Japan, Philippine Islands, Malaysia, and Indonesia as they are not located within the three regions of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia).

 

 

Austronesian Languages Expansion

Map by Christophe cagé

The protohistory of the Austronesian people can be traced farther back through time than can that of the Proto-Austronesian language. From the standpoint of historical linguistics, the home (in linguistic terminology, Urheimat) of the Austronesian languages is the main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa; on this island the deepest divisions in Austronesian are found, among the families of the native Formosan languages. According to Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten primary branches of the Austronesian language family Blust (1999). Comrie (2001:28) noted this when he wrote:

“ ... the internal diversity among the... Formosan languages... is greater than that in all the rest of Austronesian put together, so there is a major genetic split within Austronesian between Formosan and the rest... Indeed, the genetic diversity within Formosan is so great that it may well consist of several primary branches of the overall Austronesian family. ”

At least since Sapir (1968), linguists have generally accepted that the chronology of the dispersal of languages within a given language family can be traced from the area of greatest linguistic variety to that of the least. While some scholars suspect that the number of principal branches among the Formosan languages may be somewhat less than Blust's estimate of nine (e.g. Li 2006), there is little contention among linguists with this analysis and the resulting view of the origin and direction of the migration. [For a recent dissenting analysis, see (Peiros 2004).]

To get an idea of the original homeland of the Austronesian people, scholars can probe evidence from archaeology and genetics. Studies from the science of genetics have produced conflicting outcomes. Some researchers find evidence for a proto-Austronesian homeland on the Asian mainland (e.g., Melton et al., 1998), while others mirror the linguistic research, rejecting an East Asian origin in favor of Taiwan (e.g., ) Trejaut et al., 2005). Archaeological evidence (e.g., Bellwood 1997) is more consistent, suggesting that the ancestors of the Austronesians spread from the South Chinese mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago. Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is from this island that seafaring peoples migrated, perhaps in distinct waves separated by millennia, to the entire region encompassed by the Austronesian languages (Diamond 2000). It is believed that this migration began around 6,000 years ago (Blust 1999). However, evidence from historical linguistics cannot bridge the gap between those two periods. The view that linguistic evidence connects Proto-Austronesian languages to the Sino-Tibetan ones, as proposed for example by Laurent Sagart (2002), is a minority view. As Fox (2004:8) states:

“ Implied in... discussions of subgrouping [of Austronesian languages] is a broad consensus that the homeland of the Austronesians was in Taiwan. This homeland area may have also included the P'eng-hu (Pescadores) islands between Taiwan and China and possibly even sites on the coast of mainland China, especially if one were to view the early Austronesians as a population of related dialect communities living in scattered coastal settlements. ”

Linguistic analysis of the Proto-Austronesian language stops at the western shores of Taiwan; any related mainland language(s) have not survived. The only exceptions, the Chamic languages, derive from more recent migration to the mainland (Thurgood 1999:225).

 

 

* HLA-DRB1 Polymorphism on Ha’ano Island of the Kingdom of Tonga by Jun Ohashi, et al.

Abstract: HLA-DRB1 polymorphism was investigated by molecular DNA-based typing in 37 Tongans living on Ha’ano island of the Ha’apai group. The predominant HLA-DRB1 alleles were DRB1*0901 (20.3%) and DRB1*0403 (18.9%). A principal component analysis of the DRB1 allele frequencies discriminated between the Polynesians and other Oceanian populations, including Melanesians, Micronesians, and Australian Aborigines. Both present and previous studies have shown that the allele frequency of DRB1*0901 is markedly high in Polynesians and Asians, while this allele is seldom found in Non-Austronesian (NAN)-speaking Melanesians, Micronesians, and Australian Aborigines. Furthermore, we analyzed the frequencies of allele coding for Arg at position 196 (196R: nucleotide [nt] 587G) of tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2, TNF-R75) in three Oceanian populations: Tongans, Austronesian (AN)-speaking Balopa islanders living in Manus province of Papua New Guinea, and NAN-speaking Gidra living in the southwestern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. The frequencies of the TNFR2-196R allele, observed at a relatively high frequency in East and Southeast Asian populations, were 24.0%, 7.3%, and 1.0% in the Tongans, Balopa islanders, and Gidra, respectively. Considering that the allele frequencies of DRB1*0901 and TNFR2 196R are relatively high in Asians, Polynesians, and AN-speaking Melanesians (Balopa islanders), but very low in NAN-speaking Melanesians (Gidra), we conclude that at least part of the AN-speaking Polynesian ancestors were derived from Asian populations, and that extensive gene flow from the Polynesian ancestors to the indigenous Melanesians occurred around their initial migration to Melanesia. This is consistent with the results from analyses of mitochondrial DNA and ABO blood group gene polymorphisms in the same study populations.

 

 

Frequency of HLA-DRB1*0403 in Asia

Population Frequency
Taiwan Bunun
13.4%
Russia Siberia Nganasan Dudinka
12.5%
Russia Siberia Koryaks North East Kamchatka
11.0%
Taiwan Siraya
9.8%
9.4%

 

 

Koryaks

Koryaks (or Koriak) are an indigenous people of Kamchatka Krai in the Russian Far East, who inhabit the coastlands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the Chukchis, whom they closely resemble in physique and manner of life. Also, they are distantly related to the Kamchadal (Itelmens) on the Kamchatka Peninsula.

The Koryaks' neighbors are the Evens to the west of Koryak lands, the Alutor to the south on the isthmus of Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kerek to the east, and the Chukchi to the northeast.

The koryak are typically split into two groups. The coastal people Nemelan (or Nymylan) meaning 'village dwellers' due to their sedentary fishing habits and the inland Koryaks, reindeer herders called Chauchen (or Chauchven) meaning 'rich in reindeer' who are more nomadic.

Origin: The origin of the Koryaks are currently unknown. Anthropologists have speculated that a land bridge connected the Eurasian and North American continent during Late Pleistocene. It is thus possible that people crossed modern day Koryaks land en route to North America. It has further been suggested that peoples traveled back and forth between the two areas before the ice age receded, and that the ancestors of the Koryaks had returned to Siberian Asia from North America. Cultural and some linguistic similarity exist between the Nivkh and the Koryaks.

 

 

Nganasan

Samoyed (before 1906)

The Nganasans are one of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. They are the northernmost of the Samoyedic peoples, living on the Taymyr Peninsula by the Arctic Ocean. Their territory is part of Krasnoyarsk Krai. Their "capital" is the settlement of Ust-Avam. They speak Nganasan language.

The Avam Nganasans live in the western part of the Taymyr Peninsula, in the valleys of the rivers Pyasina, Dudypta, and Boganida. The speakers of the Vadeyev dialect live in the tundra and in the eastern parts of Taymyr, in Khatangsky District by the Kheta River, Lake Taymyr, and the Khatanga Bay.

The Nganasans are few in number - 834 (2002 Census). Throughout most of their history they have been nomadic hunters, fishers, and herders of reindeer. They successfully resisted attempts at conversion to foreign religions until the Soviets. The biggest change in their history occurred in the 1940s, when the Soviet authorities decided to end their shamanist beliefs. Shamans were imprisoned and their holy artifacts confiscated. Since the 1960s, the nomadic life of the Nganasans has ended and they have been settled in villages, where they live alongside Russians and Dolgans. These sudden changes caused depression for many Nganasans and alcoholism is a big problem among them.

 

 

Bunun

The Bunun (布農), also historically known as the Vonum, are a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines and are best-known for their sophisticated polyphonic vocal music. They speak the Bunun language. Unlike other aboriginal tribes in Taiwan, the Bunun are widely dispersed across the island. In the year 2000 the Bunun numbered 41,038. This was approximately 10% of Taiwan's total indigenous population, making them the fourth-largest tribal group. They have five distinct sub-tribes: the Takbunuaz, the Takituduh, the Takibaka, the Takivatan, and the Isbukun.

History: Until the coming of the Christian missionaries in the beginning of the 20th century, the Bunun were known to be fierce warriors and headhunters. The Bunun were one of the "high-mountain tribes" (along with the Atayal and the Taroko) who traditionally lived in small family units in Taiwan's Central Mountain Range and were hostile to all outsiders, whether they be Chinese immigrants or surrounding aboriginal tribes. Whereas most other aborigines were quite sedentary and tended to live in lower areas, the Bunun, along with the Atayal and Taroko were constantly on the move in Taiwan's Central Mountain Range, looking for new hunting grounds and practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. Their staple foods were millet, yam, and game.

During the Japanese rule (1895-1945), the Bunun were among the last tribes to be "pacified" by the Japanese government in residence. After an initial period of fierce resistance, they were forced to move down from the mountains and concentrated into a number of lowland villages that were spread across the Island. As a result, the family unit became less important and life centred around individual village units. The Japanese government restricted hunting practices (mainly to control the use of firearms) and introduced wet rice cultivation. Many Bunun were recruited as local policemen and during WWII, the Japanese army had Bunun regiments.

After the arrival of the Chinese Nationalist Kuomintang in October 1945, difficult days began for the aboriginal population. The "one language, one culture" policy of the Nationalist government prohibited to use of any language other than Mandarin Chinese, for official use as well as in daily life, and indigenous cultures were systematically discriminated against and encouraged to assimilate into mainstream culture.

* Videos: Polyphonic Chant, Biung- The Hunter- Buklavu (song), 美麗島 (song- Beautiful Island)

 

 

Millet

The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult production environments such as those at risk of drought. They have been in cultivation in East Asia for the last 10,000 years.

History: Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea. It was millets, rather than rice, that formed important parts of the prehistoric diet in Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies. Broomcorn (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. For example, some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north) and Hemudu (south). Cishan dates for common millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 8300–6700 BC in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation. Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 6500 BC. A 4,000-year-old well-preserved bowl containing well-preserved noodles made from foxtail millet and broomcorn millet was found at the Lajia archaeological site in China.

Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) (Crawford 1992; Crawford and Lee 2003). Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multi-cropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–300 BC) in Korea (Crawford and Lee 2003). Millets and their wild ancestors such as barnyard grass and panic grass were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period some time after 4000 BC (Crawford 1983, 1992).

Millet made its way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BC. The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.

 

 

* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart.

Migration Hypothesis of Pre-Austronesians:

Pre-Austronesians in Dawenkou (大汶口文化), migrated south by boat fast, serial founder effect in search of new land, bypassing other neolithic cultures

 

 

The Dawenkou culture (大汶口文化) is a name given by archaeologists to a group of Neolithic communities who lived primarily in Shandong, but also appeared in Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu, China. The culture existed from 4100 BC to 2600 BC, co-existing with the Yangshao culture. Turquoise, jade and ivory artefacts are commonly found at Dawenkou sites. The earliest examples of alligator drums appear at Dawenkou sites.

Archaeologists commonly divide the culture into three phases: the early phase (4100-3500 BC), the middle phase (3500-3000 BC) and the late phase (3000-2600 BC). Based on the evidence from grave goods, the early phase was highly egalitarian. The phase is typified by the presence of individually designed, long-stemmed cups (gu). Graves built with earthern ledges became increasingly common during the latter parts of the early phase. During the middle phase, grave goods began to emphasize quantity over diversity. During the late phase, wooden coffins began to appear in Dawenkou burials. The culture became increasingly stratified, as some graves contained no grave goods while others contained a large quantity of grave goods.

The type site at Dawenkou, located in Tai'an, Shandong, was excavated in 1959, 1974 and 1978. Only the middle layer at Dawenkou is associated with the Dawenkou culture, as the earliest layer corresponds to the Beixin culture and the latest layer corresponds to the early Shandong variant of the Longshan culture.

Tai'an (泰安) is a prefecture-level city in western Shandong province, People's Republic of China.

Centered around Mount Tai, the city borders the provincial capital of Jinan to the north, Laiwu to the northeast, Zibo to the east, Linyi to the southeast, Liaocheng to the extreme west and Jining to the south. To the west Tai'an is separated from the province of Henan by the Yellow River.

In the neolithic, the area of present day Tai'an was home to the Dawenkou culture. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the region belonged to the states of Qi and Lu. The site of major historical and cultural significance in the area is Mount Tai.

 

 

Siraya

The Siraya (西拉雅) are an indigenous people of Taiwan. The Siraya settled flat coastal plains in the southwest part of the island and corresponding sections of the east coast; the area is identified today with Tainan City, Tainan County and Taidong County. At least five subtribes make up the group: Mattauw, Soelangh, Baccloangh, Sinckan, and Taivoan.

The Siraya are one of Taiwan's Pingpu peoples—that is, occupants of flat coastal regions rather than mountain areas. Like other indigenous peoples of Taiwan they are ethnically and linguistically Austronesian. The name "Taiwan" originated from the Siraya language.

Modern History: After the port in the Siraya area of Taiwan was annexed in 1683 by Qing Dynasty China, a process of gradual acculturation led to the Siraya language falling out of use. Its last recorded regular use was in 1908, after Taiwan was under Japanese rule. The mother tongue of most Siraya families became Taiwanese, with first Japanese and then Mandarin Chinese learned in schools as the government-mandated lingua franca.

The Siraya maintained many aspects of their culture despite this. A number of families in the Tso-chen, Kou-pei and Chiou-chen-lin of Sinhua Township in particular still identify themselves as Siraya. The family name Wan, often encountered in the region, is a Chinese transliteration of Talavan, a common Siraya surname.

Efforts have been under way by the Siraya and related Pingpu peoples to gain official recognition from Taiwan's national government. In 2010 the Siraya enlisted the aid of the United Nations. Siraya and Taiwan government representatives have noted a flaw in the language of the law: the Chinese term employed for indigenous peoples literally means "mountain people." A literal reading of the law excludes coastal groups from recognition automatically. Government officials have proposed changing the law to ensure accuracy and inclusion of all indigenous groups.

The Siraya language entered the historical record in the early 17th century when traders from the Dutch East India Company, expelled from mainland China and Chinese waters, set up a stronghold on Taiwan at Fort Zeelandia, which was in the Siraya-speaking area. During the period of Dutch rule in Taiwan, Calvinist missionaries used Siraya and Babuza (also known as Favorlang) as contact languages. A translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew into Siraya (174 pages of Siraya and Dutch text, Gravius 1661) and a catechism in Siraya (288 pages of Siraya and Dutch text, Gravius 1662) were published, and have been subsequently republished. The Dutch colony was driven out in 1661 by Ming loyalist refugees from China, and Taiwan was subsequently incorporated into the Qing Empire. During the period of Qing Dynasty rule, use of Siraya receded, but some Siraya language materials survive in the form of Siraya land contracts with Chinese translations. The last records were lists of words made in the early 19th century.

* Videos: Siraya Recognition, Siraya National Scenic Area

福爾摩沙─十七世紀的臺灣、荷蘭與東亞 by   國立故宮博物院

 

 

 

十七世紀荷西時期北台灣歷史考古研究成果報告 by 國立故宮博物院

 

 

 

How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century by Tonio Andrade (e-book)

 

 

 

 

* Ancient DNA Sequence Analysis of Human Remains Unearthed from Wushantou Archaeological Site, Tainan by Cheng Hsuan-yi

(According to Ferrell, Bunun and Siraya languages belong to the Paiwanic language group, and the Paiwanic is similar to the Austronesian languages in the Pacific region.)

 

 

Austronesian Languages

Austronesian language family has several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively on Taiwan. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan (including its offshore Yami language) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan.

The family consists of many similar and closely related languages with large numbers of dialect continua, making it difficult to recognize boundaries between branches. However, it is clear that the greatest genealogical diversity is found among the Formosan languages of Taiwan, and the least diversity among the islands of the Pacific, supporting a dispersal of the family from Taiwan or China. The first comprehensive classification to reflect this was Dyen (1965).

There appear to have been two great migrations of Austronesian languages that quickly covered large areas, resulting in multiple local groups with little large-scale structure. The first was Malayo-Polynesian across the Philippines, Indonesia, and Melanesia. The second was Oceanic languages into Polynesia and Micronesia (Greenhill, Blust & Gray 2008).

 

 

* The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective by Yoshan Moodley, et al.

Abstract: Two prehistoric migrations peopled the Pacific. One reached New Guinea and Australia, and a second, more recent, migration extended through Melanesia and from there to the Polynesian islands. These migrations were accompanied by two distinct populations of the specific human pathogen Helicobacter pylori, called hpSahul and hspMaori, respectively. hpSahul split from Asian populations of H. pylori 31,000 to 37,000 years ago, in concordance with archaeological history. The hpSahul populations in New Guinea and Australia have diverged sufficiently to indicate that they have remained isolated for the past 23,000 to 32,000 years. The second human expansion from Taiwan 5000 years ago dispersed one of several subgroups of the Austronesian language family along with one of several hspMaori clades into Melanesia and Polynesia, where
both language and parasite have continued to diverge.

The Distribution of H. pylori Populations in Asia and the Pacific

(Distribution of hspMaori among Taiwnaese aborigines: Kavalan 0/1, Atayal 4/4, Amis 7/16, Bunun 13/14, Rukai 3/3, Paiwan 15/18, Yami 1/3)

1. Japan-Hokkaido, 2. Japan-Honshu, 3. Japan-Okinawa, 4. Korea, 5. China-Hong Kong, 13. Vietnam, 14. Singapore, 15. Malaysia, 16. Thailand, 17. Philippines, 18. India - Ladakh, 19. New Caledonia - Melanesians, 20. New Caledonia - Polynesians from Wallis and Futuna, 21. New Zealand, 22. Samoa/Tonga, 23. Australia-Alice Springs, 24. Australia-Jigalong, 25. Australia-Perth, 26. Australia - Torres Strait

 

Global Phylogeny of H. pylori

 

 

Map of Both Highland and Lowland Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes

(Map by Bstlee)

 

 

Map of Western Malayo-Polynesian Languages

 

 

Map of Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Languages

 

 

HLA-DR4

HLA-DR4 (DR4) is a HLA-DR serotype that recognizes the DRB1*04 gene products. The DR4 serogroup is large and has a number of moderate frequency alleles spread over large regions of the world.

Disease Associations

By serotype

DR4 is associated with extraarticular rheumatoid arthritis, hydralazine-induced female systemic lupus erythematosus,pemphigoid gestationis, phemphigus foliaceus, obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, IgA nephropathy and 'shared syndrome'-systemic sclerosis/rheumatoid arthritis.

By allele

DRB1*04 is associated with increased risk for alopecia areata.

DRB1*0401 is associated with multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, lyme disease induced arthritis

DRB1*0402: drug-triggered/idiopathic pemphigus vulgaris, type 1 diabetes, SLE associated anti-cardiolipin and anti-β2 glycoprotein I

DRB1*0403: polycystic ovary syndrome, SLE associated anti-cardiolipin and anti-β2 glycoprotein I

DRB1*0404: anti-citrullinated fibrinogen in rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune hepatitis

DRB1*0405: rheumatoid arthritis, Autoimmune hepatitis, type 1 diabetes

DRB1*0406: caspase-8 autoantibodies silicosis-systemic sclerosis (SSc)-systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

DRB1*0409: T. cruzi infection with cardiomyopathy

By haplotype

DR4-DQ8 is a risk factor for papillary thyroid carcinoma.

DRB1*04:DQA1*0303-DQB1*0401 haplotype: type III autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, autoimmune hepatitis, autoimmune pancreatitis

DRB1*04:DQA1*03-DQB1*0302 haplotype: Type 1 diabetes with DRB1*0401, *0405, *0402 increasing risk when DQ8 is present.

By genotype

DRB1*0101/*0404 and *0101/*0401 increases risk of mortality in rheumatoid arthritis, with eschemic heart disease and smoking.these same genotypes are associated with rheumatoid vasculitis.

By haplotype

HLA DR4-DQ8 juvenile diabetes, coeliac disease, rheumatoid arthritis

DRB1*04 allele group 68 Alleles: 60 proteins DR4 Serotype: *0401 to *0416 Serotype unknown: *0417 to *460

 

 

* Studies on the Human Leukocyte Antigens in Patients with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome in a Japanese Population--Possible susceptibility of HLA-A11 and -DRB1*0403 to patient population with polycystic ovary syndrome by M Kaibe, et al.

Abstract

PROBLEM: The objective of this study was to identify the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles that confer susceptibility or resistance to polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in the Japanese population.

METHOD OF STUDY: HLA-A, -B and -C antigens were determined in 56 patients with PCOS using conventional serological method. HLA-DRB1 genotypes were determined using a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method in 68 patients with PCOS. As a control population, 237 healthy individuals (males and females) were examined concerning HLA-A, -B and -C antigens, and 292 individuals were examined concerning HLA-DRB1 genotypes. The rate of possession of each antigen was compared between the two populations.

RESULTS: The rate of possession of the HLA-A11 and HLA-DRB1*0403 in the patients with PCOS was significantly higher compared with that in the control group. The rate of possession of HLA-B39 in the patients with PCOS was significantly lower compared with that in the general population group.

CONCLUSION: Human leukocyte antigen systems appear to be linked to PCOS.

 

 

* Studies on the HLA-DRB1 Genotypes in Japanese Women with Severe Pre-eclampsia Positive and Negative for Anticardiolipin Antibody Using a Polymerase Chain Reaction–restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Method by Koichi Takakuwa, et al.

Abstract: The human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR genotype was determined in 54 Japanese women with severe pre-eclampsia in order to elucidate the relationship between HLA-DR antigen systems and pre-eclampsia. The patients were divided into two groups according to positivity for the anticardiolipin antibody (ACA), i.e. one patient group negative for ACA (n = 41) and the other patient group positive for ACA (n = 13). The frequency of each HLA-DRB1 allele in both groups was compared with that in 81 normally fertile Japanese women who had not experienced pre-eclampsia. The genotypes of HLA-DR antigens were determined using a polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR–RFLP) method. The frequency of DRB1*04 and DRB1*0403 in the patient group positive for the ACA was significantly higher compared with that in the group of normal fertile women (P< 0.05). The frequency of each HLA-DRB1 allele was not significantly different between patient group with pre-eclampsia negative for ACA and group of normal fertile women. These results suggest a difference in the immunogenetic background between the patient groups with severe pre-eclampsia positive and negative for the ACA.

 

 

* HLA Class II Alleles Associations of Anticardiolipin and Anti-beta2GPI Antibodies in a Large Series of European Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus by M Galeazzi, et al.

Abstract: The objective of this study was to determine the HLA class II associations of the anticardiolipin (aCL) and anti-beta2GPI (abeta2GPI) antibodies in a large series of European patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). A cohort of 577 European SLE patients was enrolled. aCL and abeta2GPI were measured by ELISA methods. Molecular typing of HLA-DRB1, DRB3, DRB4, DRB5, DQA1 and DQB1 loci was performed by the polymerase chain reaction-sequence specific oligonucleotide probes (PCR-SSOP) method. aCL of IgG, IgM and IgA isotypes were detected in 22.8%, 14% and 13.9% of patients, respectively. IgG and IgM abeta2GPI were detected in 20% of patients. aCL showed positive association with HLA DRB1*04, DRB1*0402, DRB1*0403, DRB1*07, DRB3*0301, DQA1*0201, DQA1*0301, DQB1*0302, and negative association with DQA1*0501, DRB3*0202. abeta2GPI showed positive association with DRB1*0402, DRB1*0403, DQB1*0302. DRB1*0402 carried the highest relative risk for the presence of both aCL (RR=8. 1) and abeta2GPI (RR=4.6). Our results confirm the already described associations of aCL with HLA DR4 and DR7, but also demonstrate that, among the alleles at the DRB1*04 locus, the *0402 was most represented both in aCL and in abeta2GPI positive patients. In addition, HLA class II associations of abeta2GPI are for the first time extensively examined in a large cohort of European SLE patients.

 

 

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (紅斑性狼瘡), often abbreviated to SLE or lupus, is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease (or autoimmune connective tissue disease) that can affect any part of the body. As occurs in other autoimmune diseases, the immune system attacks the body’s cells and tissue, resulting in inflammation and tissue damage.

SLE most often harms the heart, joints, skin, lungs, blood vessels, liver, kidneys, and nervous system. The course of the disease is unpredictable, with periods of illness (called flares) alternating with remissions. The disease occurs nine times more often in women than in men, especially between the ages of 15 and 50, and is more common in those of non-European descent.

SLE is treatable through addressing its symptoms, mainly with cyclophosphamides, corticosteroids and immunosuppressants; there is currently no cure. SLE can be fatal, although with recent medical advances, fatalities are becoming increasingly rare. Survival for people with SLE in the United States, Canada, and Europe is approximately 95% at five years, 90% at 10 years, and 78% at 20 years.

Environmental Triggers: The second mechanism may be due to environmental factors. These factors may not only exacerbate existing SLE conditions but also trigger the initial onset. They include certain medications (such as some antidepressants and antibiotics), extreme stress, exposure to sunlight, hormones, and infections. UV radiation has been shown to trigger the photosensitive lupus rash and some evidence suggests that UV light might be capable of altering the structure of the DNA, leading to the creation of autoantibodies. Sex hormones such as estrogen play an important role in the occurrence of SLE and it is observed that during reproductive years, the frequency of SLE is 10 times greater in females than in males.

Prognosis: SLE is considered incurable, but highly treatable.

In the 1950s, most people diagnosed with SLE lived fewer than five years. Advances in diagnosis and treatment have improved survival to the point where over 90% now survive for more than ten years, and many can live relatively asymptomatically. Prognosis is normally worse for men and children than for women; however, if symptoms are present after age 60, the disease tends to run a more benign course. Early mortality, within 5 years, is due to organ failure or overwhelming infections, both of which can be modified by early diagnosis and treatment. The mortality risk is fivefold when compared to the normal population in the late stages, which can be attributed to cardiovascular diseases acquired from corticosteroid therapy, the leading cause of death for people with SLE.

To reduce potential for cardiovascular issues, high blood pressure and high cholesterol should be prevented or treated aggressively. Steroids should be used at the lowest dose for the shortest possible period, and other drugs that can reduce symptoms should be used whenever possible. High serum creatinine, hypertension, nephrotic syndrome, anemia and hypoalbuminemia are poor prognostic factors.

The ANA is the most sensitive screening test for evaluation, whereas anti-Sm (anti-Smith) is the most specific. The dsDNA (double-stranded DNA) antibody is also fairly specific and often fluctuates with disease activity; as such, the dsDNA titer is sometimes useful to monitor disease flares or response to treatment.

Epidemiology: The rate of SLE varies considerable between countries, ethnicity, by gender, and has changed over time. In the United States the prevalence of SLE is estimated to be about 53 per 100,000, translating to about 159,000 out of 300 million people in the US being affected. In Northern Europe the rate is about 40 per 100,000 people. SLE occurs more frequently and with greater severity among those of non-European descent.

SLE, like many autoimmune diseases, affects females more frequently than males, at a rate of almost 9 to 1.

The incidence of SLE in the United States increased from 1.0 in 1955 to 7.6 in 1974. Whether the increase is due to better diagnosis or to increasing frequency of the disease is unknown.

 

 

* Nationwide Population-based Epidemiologic Study of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Taiwan by YM Chiu

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to investigate the epidemiology and medical costs of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in Taiwan. Cases of SLE were identified from the National Health Insurance Research Database with corresponding International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) code 710.0 from January 2000 to December 2007. Age and sex-specific incidences were estimated by dividing the incidence number by population data obtained from the Department of Statistics, Ministry of the Interior. During the study period, 22,182 cases were identified. The average annual incidence rate was 8.1 per 100,000. The incidence was especially high in women of 20—54 years. The female:male incidence ratio increased with age to a peak in the age group of 40—44, and then declined. The prevalence increased steadily during the study period from 42.2/100,000 in 2000 to 67.4/100,000 in 2007, while the incidence decreased steadily from 9.9/100,000/year in 2001 to 6.8/100,000/year in 2007. The average cost was US$71.5 for each outpatient service and US$1922.3 for each hospitalization. This is the first epidemiologic study of both pediatric and adult SLE in Taiwan. The incidence and prevalence were higher than in most reports on Whites. The sex ratio was similar to that of Whites, with a marked female predominance, especially during reproductive age. There was a probable lower survival rate for male patients.

 

_____________________________________________________

 

DRB1* 1602

 

Mackay Report: DRB1* 1602 基因，主要出現在美洲(Americas)的部分族群、及東南亞 (Southeast Asia)的族群中，在非洲人與歐洲人更為少見(頻率<1%)，是因為該基因在非洲、歐洲等地繁衍的程度較低所致(見附表2)。在台灣，DRB1*1602 於閩南(Minnan)、客家 (Hakka)族群出現的頻率平均為6.0%；於平埔族的巴宰族(Pazeh)有大於12%的頻率；於高山原住民(Taiwanese highland aborigines)族群的頻率範圍為1.0 ~ 8.0 %；而於離島蘭嶼的雅美族 (Yami) 具有台灣最高的頻率表現(>25 %)。

 

 

Frequency of HLA-DRB1*1602 in the Americas

Population Frequency
Colombia North Eastern Plains Sikuani
38.9%
Brazil Guarani M bya
37.1%
33.9%
Colombia West Waunana
33.3%
Colombia West Embera
32.5%
Mexico Mixe Oaxaca
30.9%
Brazil Central Plateau Xavantes
30.3%
Brazil Guarani Nandeva
29.6%
Brazil Terena
27.1%
Brazil Ticuna
24.5%
Costa Rica and Panama
20.0%
USA New Mexico Zuni
19.0%
Mexico Mixtec Oaxaca
18.4%
Mexico Mazatecans
18.3%
Argentina Chiriguanos
17.9%
Argentina Mapuche
16.3%
Colombia Wayu Guajira Peninsula
14.3%
Brazil Kaingang
12.5%
USA South Dakota Lakota Sioux
11.9%
USA Arizona Pima pop2
11.8%
USA South Dakota Sioux
11.5%

 

 

Xavantes

Photo by Agência Brasil,

The Xavante (also Shavante, Chavante, Akuen, A'uwe, Akwe, Awen, or Akwen) are an indigenous people, comprising some 9,600 individuals (2000 est.) within the territory of eastern Mato Grosso state in Brazil. They speak the Xavante language, part of the Jé language family.

They were enslaved in the 17th century, after which they have tried to avoid contact. A temporary coexistence with westernized society in the 19th century in the state of Goiás, was followed by withdrawal to Mato Grosso. They were re-"discovered" during the 1930s. From 1946 to 1957, they were brought under dictator Getúlio Vargas’s National Integration Program, and experienced massacres and disease. Due to this history, they have a distrust of White or Portuguese men. Today they are still wary of any approach of non-Xavante, called "waradzu".

The Xavante leader Mário Juruna was the first indigenous Brazilian to become a federal representative.

The people are renowned as aggressive and prideful. They may be most famous for their dualistic societal structure. Two clans, the Âwawẽ and Po'reza'õno compose the culture, and marriage is not allowed between members of the same clan. An example of inter-clan relationships are the traditional log races, where the two clans compete in a race to carry palm tree trunks weighing as much as 80 kg to a defined point.

The Xavante are also known for their complex initiation rituals for young males, such as when small wooden sticks are inserted in the earlobes at the age of fourteen. As time passes, the size of these adornments is increased for the rest of their lives.

In 1996 the Brazilian heavy metal band Sepultura stayed and recorded with the Xavante people, who featured on their album Roots. A small number of Xavante even travelled to São Paulo to partake in Sepultura's Barulho Contra Fome (Noise Against Hunger) concert in 1998 that marked the start of their tour for their follow-up album, Against where their presence was featured in the music video for the song "Choke".

* Videos: Dança Xavante (Xavante Dance), The True People

 

 

Settlement of the Americas

Map by Altaileopard

 

 

Frequency of HLA-DRB1*1602 in Asia

Population Frequency
Taiwan Tao
30.0%
Vietnam HoaBinh Muong
19.9%
Taiwan Orchid Island Yami
18.7%
Taiwan Pazeh
15.5%
Thailand North Dai Lue
14.1%
China Guangxi Maonan
13.0%
Taiwan Thao
11.7%

 

 

Tao

Photo from Among the Head Hunters of Formosa by Janet B. Montgomery McGovern

The Tao (達悟族), commonly known by the misnomer Yami (雅美), are a Taiwanese aboriginal people, native to tiny outlying Orchid Island in Taiwan. The Tao are an Austronesian people linguistically and culturally closer to the Ivatan people of the Batanes islands in the Philippines than to other aboriginal peoples on the main island of Taiwan. The word "Tao" (pronounced Ta-o) means "person" or "people" in both the Tao language and all Philippine languages. The Tao people are traditionally good at making balangays (native canoes), which is a symbol of their tribe.

In the year 2000 the Yami numbered 3,872. This was approximately 1% of Taiwan's total indigenous population.

* Videos: 達悟族舞蹈 (Tao Dance), Orchid Island - Fun Taiwan

 

 

Thao

The Thao/Ngan (邵族) are a small group of Taiwanese aborigines who have lived near Sun Moon Lake (Lake Candidius) in central Taiwan for at least a century, and probably since the time of the Qing dynasty. In the year 2000 the Thao/Ngan tribe numbered only 281, making them the smallest of all of the recognized aboriginal tribes in Taiwan (a number of aboriginal tribes, both smaller and larger than the Thao in population remain unrecognized by the Taiwanese governing authorities).

They are the smallest of the Taiwanese aborigine group in terms of population and the smallest ethnic group in Taiwan. Despite their small group size, the Thao/Ngan have retained their customs, beliefs and traditional culture and language up until now, though they have been assimilated into mainstream Chinese culture as well. Most of the members of this ethnic group work today as menial workers, cooks and vendors in the tourism industry at Sun Moon Lake. The Chi-Chi earthquake of 1999 damaged or destroyed 80% of the houses of the Thao/ngan tribe and made many of them lose employment.

* Vodeos: 邵族文化 (Thao Culture) Part I, Part II, 日月潭 (Sun Moon Lake)

 

 

Muong

The Mường (Vietnamese: Người Mường) is the third largest of Vietnam’s 53 minority groups, with an estimated population of 1.2 million. The Muong people inhabit the mountainous region of northern Vietnam, concentrated in Hoa Binh Province and the mountainous districts of Thanh Hoa Province. They are most closely related to the ethnic Vietnamese. While the Muong are believed to be related to the Vietnamese, some ethnologists theorize the Muong remained in the mountains and developed independently while the Vietnamese moved to the low country and became influenced by Chinese culture resulting from the 111 BC invasion by Chinese Han Emperor Wu Ti. The Muong and the Tai have had a mutual influence on each other’s culture. So, today the Muong are ethnically close to the Vietnamese, but culturally and socially similar to the Tai.

 

 

Dai Lue

Thai Tai Lue mural depicting traditional costumes

* The Tai Lue In Thailand by Thailand's World

  • The Tai Lue have one of the oldest recorded histories. The first Lue Kingdom was formed in Yunnan in 1180. Later in 1570 the then Kingdom was divided into 12 tax collection regions now known as Sip Song Panna. Of these 2 now comprise part of Laos and the other 10, part of today's China.
  • Tai Lue workers were brought to Thailand to help repopulate the region after the removal of the Burmese. Today they have a strong cultural presence in Nan Province.
  • Tai Lue beliefs like other Tai the Tai Lue believe in the 32 Khwans of the body.
  • They are animists and have additionally adopted Buddhism since its introduction to Sip Son Panna in the 14th C.
  • Each Tai Lue village has its Shaman.
  • The principal spirits are as with most Tai groups, the spirit of the district, the village etc. Spirit houses are respected.

 

 

Maonan

photo by paulnoll.com

The Maonan (self name: Anan meaning local people) people are an ethnic group. They are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

The Maonan ethnic minority has a population of 107,166, living in the northern part of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, according to the Chinese government site.

Their language belongs to the Kam-Sui branch of the Tai-Kadai languages or Kradai languages. Maonan is a tonal language with 8 tones

Interestly, more than one 80% of the Maonan share the same surname: Tan. Maonan with the surname "Tan" believe that they are descended from the old inhabitants of the province of Hunan that emigrated to Guangxi and married Maonan women. Other frequent surnames found in this ethnic group are: Lu, Meng, Wei and Yan.

 

 

Frequency of HLA-DRB1*1602 in the Pacific Islands

Population Frequency
Papua New Guinea Lowlanders Wosera
28.8%
Papua New Guinea Lowlanders Roro
21.2%
Papua New Guinea South Gidra
16.2%
Papua New Guinea Madang
14.6%

 

 

Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea (PNG), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands (the western portion of the island is a part of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua). It is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, in a region defined since the early 19th century as Melanesia. The capital is Port Moresby.

Papua New Guinea is one of the most diverse countries on Earth, with over 850 indigenous languages and at least as many traditional societies, out of a population of just under 7 million.

History: Human remains have been found which have been dated to about 50,000 years ago. These ancient inhabitants probably had their origins in Southeast Asia, themselves originating in Africa 50,000 to 70,000 years ago. New Guinea was one of the first landmasses after Africa and Eurasia to be populated by modern humans, with the first migration at approximately the same time as that of Australia.

Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7,000 BC, making it one of the few areas of original plant domestication in the world. A major migration of Austronesian speaking peoples came to coastal regions roughly 2,500 years ago, and this is correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, and certain fishing techniques.

More recently, some 300 years ago, the sweet potato entered New Guinea having been introduced to the Moluccas from South America by the locally dominant colonial power, Portugal. The far higher crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional agriculture; sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and gave rise to a significant increase in population in the highlands.

Although now almost entirely eradicated, in the past headhunting and cannibalism occurred in many parts of what is now Papua New Guinea. By the early 1950s, through administration and mission pressures, open cannibalism in Papua New Guinea had almost entirely ceased.

Little was known in the West about the island until the nineteenth century, although traders from Southeast Asia had been visiting New Guinea as long as 5,000 years ago collecting bird of paradise plumes, and Spanish and Portuguese explorers had encountered it as early as the sixteenth century (1526 and 1527 Dom Jorge de Meneses). The country's dual name results from its complex administrative history before Independence. The word papua is derived from pepuah, a Malay word describing the frizzy Melanesian hair, and "New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, who in 1545 noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the Guinea coast of Africa.

 

 

HLA-DR16

HLA-DR16(DR16) is a HLA-DR serotype that recognizes the DRB1*1601, *1602 and *1604 gene products. DR16 is found in the Mediterranean at modest frequencies. DR16 is part of the older HLA-DR2 serotype group which also contains the similar HLA-DR15 antigens.

Disease Associations: DR16 is associated with Chaga's cardiomyopathy, rheumatic heart disease, coronary artery ectasia, and chronic discoid lupus erythematosus.

DRB1*1601 is associated with tuberculosis risk

DRB1*1602: Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic heart disease, Takayasu arteritis, systemic sclerosis (SSc) & anti-DNA topoisomerase I (anti-topo I) antibody, melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei infection)

Extended Linkage

DRB1*1601:DQA1*0102:DQB1*0502 haplotype is associated with tubeculousis risk

 

 

Melioidosis

B. pseudomallei colonies on Ashdown's agar showing the characteristic cornflower head morphology.

Melioidosis (類鼻疽; also called Paddy-field disease or Whitmore disease or Nightcliff gardener's disease) is an infectious disease caused by a Gram-negative bacterium, Burkholderia pseudomallei, found in soil and water. It is of public health importance in endemic areas, particularly in Thailand and northern Australia. It exists in acute and chronic forms. Symptoms may include pain in chest, bones, or joints; cough; skin infections, lung nodules and pneumonia.

B. pseudomallei was thought to be a member of the Pseudomonas genus and was previously known as Pseudomonas pseudomallei. It is phylogenetically related closely to Burkholderia mallei which causes glanders, an infection primarily of horses, donkeys and mules. The name Melioidosis is derived from the Greek melis meaning "a distemper of asses" with the suffixes -oid meaning "similar to" and -osis meaning "a condition" i.e. a condition similar to glanders.

Epidemiology: Melioidosis is endemic in parts of the world of southeast Asia (including Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Burma and Vietnam), Taiwan and northern Australia. Multiple cases have also been described in southern China and Hong Kong, Brunei, India, and Laos, and sporadic cases in Central and South America, the Middle East, the Pacific and several African countries. Although only one case of melioidosis has ever been reported in Bangladesh, at least five cases have been imported to the UK from that country, which suggests that melioidosis is endemic to that country and that there is a serious problem of underdiagnosis or under-reporting, most likely due to a lack of adequate laboratory facilities.

Northeast Thailand has the highest incidence of melioidosis recorded in the world (12.7 cases of melioidosis per 100,000 people per year). In Northeast Thailand, 80% of children are positive for antibodies against B. pseudomallei by the age of 4; the figures are lower in other parts of the world.

Melioidosis is a recognised disease in animals, including cats, goats, sheep, and horses. Cattle, water buffalo, and crocodiles are considered to be relatively resistant to melioidosis despite their constant exposure to mud. An outbreak at the Paris Zoo in the 1970s ("L’affaire du jardin des plantes") was thought to have originated from an imported panda.

Burkholderia pseudomallei is normally found in soil and surface water; a history of contact with soil or surface water is therefore almost invariable in patients with melioidosis; that said, the majority of patients who do have contact with infected soil suffer no ill effects. Even within an area, the distribution of B. pseudomallei within the soil can be extremely patchy. Contaminated ground water was implicated in one outbreak in northern Australia.

The single most important risk factor for developing severe melioidosis is diabetes mellitus. Other risk factors include thalassaemia, kidney disease, and occupation (rice paddy farmers). The mode of infection is believed to be either through a break in the skin, or through the inhalation of aerosolized B. pseudomallei.

There is a clear association with increased rainfall: with the number (and severity) of cases increasing following increased precipitation.

Prevention: There are only few unusual cases documented for person-to-person transmission; and patients with melioidosis should not be considered contagious. Lab workers should handle Burkholderia pseudomallei under BSL-3 isolation conditions, as laboratory acquired melioidosis has been described. Following laboratory exposure, post exposure prophylaxis with cotrimoxazole has been suggested but has not been evaluated by clinical trials.

In endemic areas, people (rice-paddy farmers in particular) are warned to avoid contact with soil, mud and surface water where possible. Case clusters have been described following flooding and cyclones and probably relate to exposure. Other case clusters have related to contamination of drinking water supplies. Populations at risk include patients with diabetes mellitus, chronic renal failure, chronic lung disease or patients with an immune deficiency of any kind. The effectiveness of measures to reduce exposure to the causative organism have not been established. A vaccine is not yet available.

 

 

* HLA-DR and -DQ Associations with Melioidosis by Dharakul T, et al.

Abstract: Melioidosis is an important infectious disease of southeast Asia caused by an intracellular bacterium, Burkholderia pseudomallei. Cellular immunity is postulated to play important roles in immunity to melioidosis that may influence the severity and clinical outcome of the disease. The present study was undertaken to investigate possible associations of melioidosis with HLA class II alleles. HLA typing of HLA-DRB1, -DQA1, and -DQB1 was performed using polymerase chain reaction and sequence-specific oligonucleotide hybridization (PCR-SSO). Seventy-nine melioidosis patients and 105 healthy, ethnically and geographically matched controls were studied. Among 24 DRB1 alleles, 7 DQA1 alleles, and 13 DQB1 alleles identified in this population, an association with melioidosis was observed with DRB1*1602 which was increased in melioidosis patients (10.1%) compared to normal controls (4.8%), p = 0.047 (odds ratio (OR) = 2.25). In addition, significant increase of DRB1*1602 allele frequency and decrease of DQA1*03 were also observed in septicemic melioidosis patients, the most severe form of the disease (p = 0.01, OR = 3.10; and p = 0.047, respectively). Furthermore, a trend of association of DRB1*0701, DQA1*0201, and DQB1*0201 with relapse cases of melioidosis was also noted. In contrast, no HLA association was observed in localized melioidosis or melioidosis with diabetes mellitus. These findings provide the suggestive evidence of an immunogenetic basis of certain aspects of melioidosis.

 

 

* Prevalence of Melioidosis in the Er-Ren River Basin, Taiwan: Implications for Transmission by Hsun-Pi Su, et al.

Abstract: An increase in melioidosis cases compared to other areas in Taiwan was observed in the Er-Ren River Basin, southwestern Taiwan, from November 2001 to August 2006. The objective of this study was to determine the association between the level of exposure to Burkholderia pseudomallei and the incidence rate of melioidosis and to survey the transmission modes of B. pseudomallei in the Er-Ren River Basin. The serosurveillance of melioidosis gave seropositivity rates of 36.6%, 21.6%, and 10.9%, respectively, for residents in regions A, B, and C within the Er-Ren Basin area. Culture and PCR-based detection of B. pseudomallei from soil demonstrated that the geographical distribution of this bacterium was confined to a particular site in region B. The distribution of seropositive titers was significantly associated with the incidence rate of melioidosis (120, 68, or 36 incidence cases per 100,000 population in region A, B, or C in 2005), whereas it did not correlate with the geographical distribution of B. pseudomallei within the soil. A survey of transmission modes showed that residents with seropositivity were linked to factors such as having confronted flooding and having walked barefoot on soil, which are potential risk factors associated with exposure to B. pseudomallei. Our findings indicated that the Er-Ren River Basin in Taiwan has the potential to become a high-prevalence area for melioidosis. This is the first report that documents a high prevalence of melioidosis in an area north of latitude 20°N.

 

 

* Cluster of Melioidosis after Typhoon Morakot in Tainan City by Chiao-Wen Lin

Abstract: In August 2009, Typhoon Morakot hit Taiwan, bringing the largest amount of rainfalls in 50 years. Morakot caused severe flooding and landslide in southern Taiwan. After the storm, Tainan City received reports of 6 suspected melioidosis cases; all were later confirmed by the Research and Diagnostic Center. Of the cases, four were male and two female. Three of the cases had wounds and history of contact with floodwater or mud; two of the cases had wounds but no history of contact with floodwater or mud; and one case had no wounds nor contact history. Areas with flooding or confirmed cases should increase public awareness regarding melioidosis. Immunocompromised persons, including those with diabetes mellitus or chronic renal insufficiency, should avoid contact with floodwater or mud. The public should be educated to seek medical care and report to the health department when suspected symptoms occur.