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Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Haplogroup R is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup common throughout West Eurasia. It is a subgroup of haplogroup P and is defined by the M207 mutation.

Origins: This haplogroup is believed to have arisen around in the Upper Paleolithic period (35,000-40,000 years ago), suggests that central and western Asia might be the source of this haplogroup:

"Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation."

Distribution: Y-haplogroup R is found throughout all continents, but is fairly common throughout Europe, South Asia and Central Asia. In these regions the distribution is markedly different for the two major subclades R1a and R1b.

It is important in Native Americans and it also occurs in Caucasus, Near East, West China, Siberia and some parts of Africa.

Small frequencies are found in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Korea and Indigenous Australians.

 

Subclades

Paragroup R*

Y-chromosomes which possess the marker M207 (which defines Haplogroup R), but neither of the markers for its subgroups, are categorised as belonging to group R*. However, R* is exceedingly rare. According to Firasat et al. (2007), R* has been found in 10.3% (10/97) of a sample of Burusho, 6.8% (3/44) of a sample of Kalash, and 1.0% (1/96) of a sample of Pashtuns from northern Pakistan in addition to 0.63% (4/638) of an ethnically mixed Pakistani sample. Kivisild et al. (2003) have reported finding R* in 3.4% (1/29) of a sample of Indians from Gujarat. There is also a significant sample of RxR1 from Chad.

R1

The majority of members of haplogroup R belong to its subgroup R1, defined by marker M173. R1 is very common throughout Europe and western Eurasia in the form of its subclades R1a1a-M17 and R1b1b2-M269.

R1 is the second most important haplogroup in Indigenous peoples of the Americas following haplogroup Q, and spreads specially in Algonquian peoples from United States and Canada.

R1*: The Haplogroup R1* is very rare. Examples have been found in Turkey, Pakistan and India, but the highest frequency so far discovered is in Iran.

R1a: R1a is typical in populations of Eastern Europe, Indian Subcontinent and parts of Central Asia. It has a significant presence in Northern Europe, Central Europe, Iran, Altaians and Xinjiang (China) as well as in Siberia. R1a can be found in low frequencies in the Middle East, mostly in Indo-European speakers or their descendants.

The highest levels of R1a (>50%) are found across the Eurasian Steppe: West Bengal Brahmins (72%), and Uttar Pradesh Brahmins, (67%) , the Ishkashimi (68%), the Tajik population of Khojant (64%), Kyrgyz (63.5%), Sorbs (63.39%), Poles (56.4%), Ukrainians (50%) and Russians (50%).

R1a has been variously associated with:

The Modern studies for R1a1 (M17) suggest that it could have originated in South Asia. It could have found its way initially from Western India (Gujarat) through Pakistan and Kashmir, then via Central Asia and Russia, before finally coming to Europe"..."as part of an archaeologically dated Paleolithic movement from east to west 30,000 years ago.

R1b: Haplogroup R1b predominates in Western Europe. It can be found at high frequency in Bashkortostan (Russia). Low frequency in Central Asia, Middle East, South Asia as well as North Africa. There is an isolated pocket of R1b in Sub Saharan Africa. In Europe, R1b coincides with areas of Italic and Celtic influence.

R1b is thought to have originated in Central Asia, the Middle East, or Anatolia. It is prolific in Western Europe, where frequencies of 70% or more have been found in populations from Ireland, Spain, and the Netherlands, according to the Genographic Project conducted by the National Geographic Society.

It is also found in Bashkortostan where its frequency surpasses 84%. It is also present at lower frequencies throughout Eastern Europe.

Although it is rare in South Asia, some populations show relatively high percentages for R1b. These include Lambadi (Andhra Pradesh) showing 37%, Hazara 32% and Agharia (East India) at 30%. Besides these, R1b has appeared in Balochi (8%), Chenchu (2%), Makrani (5%), Newars (Nepal) (10.6%), Pallan (3.5%), Pathan (10%), Punjabi (7.6%) and West Bengalis (6.5%).

It is also found in North Africa where its frequency surpasses 10% in some parts of Algeria.

R2

Haplogroup R2 is defined by the presence of the marker M479.

R2*: Paragroup is a term used in population genetics to describe lineages within a haplogroup that are not defined by any additional unique markers. They are typically represented by an asterisk (*) placed after the main haplogroup.

Y-chromosomes which are positive to the M479 SNP and negative to the M124, L266, P249, P267, and PAGES00004 SNPs, are categorized as belonging to Paragroup R2*.

Paragroup R2* (M124-) is found in Pakistan North, Lisbon (Portugal), Sevilla (Andalusia, Spain), Tatars (Bashkortostan, Russia), Italy North, and Osetins South (South Caucasus).

R2a: Haplogroup R2a is a subgroup of haplogroup R2. Haplogroup R2a is defined by the presence of the markers M124, L266, P249, P267, & PAGES00004. At least 90% of R2a individuals are located in the Indian sub-continent. It is also reported in Caucasus and Central Asia.

R2a may have arisen in southern Central Asia, and its members migrated southward as part of the second major wave of human migration into India.

 

Tree

The subclades of haplogroup R with their defining mutation, according to the stratification chart published by the 2011 International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG):

 

* Y Chromosome Diversity, Human Expansion, Drift, and Cultural Evolution by Jacques Chiaronia, et al.

Y Chromosome Haplogroup R Geographic Frequency Distribution Map

 

 

Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup R1a is common in many parts of Eurasia. One sub-clade (branch) of R1a, currently designated R1a1a, is much more common than the others in all major geographical regions. R1a1a, defined by the SNP mutation M17, is particularly common in a large region extending from South Asia and Southern Siberia to Central Europe and Scandinavia.

Currently, the R1a family is defined most broadly by the SNP mutation M420. The recent discovery of M420 resulted in a reorganization of the known family tree of R1a, in particular establishing a new paragroup (designated R1a*) for the relatively rare lineages which are not in the R1a1 branch leading to R1a1a.

R1a and R1a1a are believed to have originated somewhere within Eurasia, most likely in the area from Eastern Europe to South Asia. The most recent studies indicate that South Asia is the most likely region of origin.

Distribution of Haplogroup R1a in Central and Northern Asia: R1a1a frequencies vary widely between populations within central and northern parts of Eurasia, but it is found in areas including Western China and Eastern Siberia. This variation is possibly a consequence of population bottlenecks in isolated areas and the movements of Scythians in ancient times and later the Turco-Mongols. High frequencies of R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198; 50 to 70%) are found among the Ishkashimis, Khojant Tajiks, Kyrgyzs, and in several peoples of Russia's Altai Republic. Although levels are comparatively low amongst some Turkic-speaking groups (e.g. Turks, Azeris, Kazakhs, Yakuts), levels are very high in certain Turkic or Mongolic-speaking groups of Northwestern China, such as the Bonan, Dongxiang, Salar, and Uyghurs. R1a1a is also found among certain indigenous Eastern Siberians, including:Kamchatkans and Chukotkans, and peaking in Itel'man at 22%.

Steppe Cultures: Archaeologists recognize a complex of inter-related and relatively mobile cultures living on the Eurasian steppe, part of which protrudes into Europe as far west as Ukraine. These cultures from the late Neolithic and into the Iron Age, with specific traits such as Kurgan burials and horse domestication, have been associated with the dispersal of Indo-European languages across Eurasia. Nearly all samples from Bronze and Iron Age graves in the Krasnoyarsk area in south Siberia belonged to R1a1-M17 and appeared to represent an eastward migration from Europe.

Geneticists believing that they see evidence of R1a1a gene-flow from the Eurasian Steppe to India have frequently proposed the involvement of these Steppe cultures in the process. Such a Steppe origin for all or part R1a1a continues to be argued on the basis of DNA results from ancient remains from several South Siberian late Kurgan sites, including some from the Andronovo culture. However, in recent discussions of this theory it is considered only to apply to a part of R1a1a, making this theory no longer incompatible with other origins theories for R1a more broadly defined.

 

 

Map of Krasnoyarsk

* Ancient DNA Provides New Insights into the History of South Siberian Kurgan People by C. Keyser, et al.

Abstract: To help unravel some of the early Eurasian steppe migration movements, we determined the Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area dated from between the middle of the second millennium BC. to the fourth century AD. In order to go further in the search of the geographic origin and physical traits of these south Siberian specimens, we also typed phenotype-informative single nucleotide polymorphisms. Our autosomal, Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA analyses reveal that whereas few specimens seem to be related matrilineally or patrilineally, nearly all subjects belong to haplogroup R1a1-M17 which is thought to mark the eastward migration of the early Indo-Europeans. Our results also confirm that at the Bronze and Iron Ages, south Siberia was a region of overwhelmingly predominant European settlement, suggesting an eastward migration of Kurgan people across the Russo-Kazakh steppe. Finally, our data indicate that at the Bronze and Iron Age time frame, south Siberians were blue (or green)-eyed, fair-skinned and light-haired people and that they might have played a role in the early development of the Tarim Basin civilization. To the best of our knowledge, no equivalent molecular analysis has been undertaken so far.

 

 

Blue eyes contain low amounts of melanin within the iris stroma. The type of melanin present is eumelanin. The inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait, however it is a polygenic trait (meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). Eiberg and colleagues showed in a study published in Human Genetics that a mutation in the 86th intron of the HERC2 gene, which is hypothesized to interact with the OCA2 gene promoter, reduced expression of OCA2 with subsequent reduction in melanin production. The authors concluded that the mutation may have arisen in a single individual around the Black Sea region 6,000-10,000 years ago, perhaps suggesting that all people with true blue eyes are more closely related. However, blue eyes with brown spots around the pupil are not related to this mutation. Blue eyes are most common in Poland, Ireland, Netherlands, Iceland, Austria, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, Finland, France, Estonia, and the United Kingdom They are also present in Southern Europe, Spain, Italy and the Balkans, the Middle East (especially in Israel and Lebanon), India and are also found in Afghanistan.

 

 

The Tarim Basin (塔里木盆地) is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about 906,500 km2 (350,000 sq mi). It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The Taklamakan Desert dominates much of the basin. The area is sparsely settled by the Uyghurs, other Turkic peoples and Tajiks.

History: It is speculated that the Tarim Basin may be one of the last places in Asia to have become inhabited: It is surrounded by mountains and irrigation technologies might have been necessary. Ancient DNA studies of mummies from the Xiaohe cemetery suggest that an admixed population of both west and east Eurasian origin lived in the Tarim basin since the early Bronze Age. The maternal lineages were predominantly east Eurasian haplogroup C with smaller numbers of H and K, while the paternal lines were all west Eurasian R1a1a. The admixture likely took place in south Siberia before the population's migration into the Tarim Basin.

The Northern Silk Road on one route bypassed the Tarim Basin north of the Tian Shan mountains and traversed it on three oases dependent routes: One north of the Taklamakan Desert, one south, and a middle one connecting both through the Lop Nor region.

The Tocharian languages were once spoken in the Tarim Basin. They were the easternmost of the Indo-European languages, and may be related to the "Yuezhi" (月氏).

The Han Chinese wrested control of the Tarim Basin from the Xiongnu at the end of the 1st century under the leadership of Gen. Ban Chao (32–102 AD).

The powerful Kushans expanded back into the Tarim Basin in the 1st–2nd centuries AD, where they established a kingdom in Kashgar and competed for control of the area with nomads and Chinese forces. They introduced the Brahmi script, the Indian Prakrit language for administration, and Buddhism, playing a central role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to Eastern Asia.

Lop Nur is the site of the bronze-age Xiaohe Tomb complex from which more than 30 well-preserved mummies have been excavated. It is now a nuclear test site for the People's Republic of China.

 

 

* Evidence that a West-East Admixed Population Lived in the Tarim Basin as Early as the Early Bronze Age by Li C, et al.

BACKGROUND: The Tarim Basin, located on the ancient Silk Road, played a very important role in the history of human migration and cultural communications between the West and the East. However, both the exact period at which the relevant events occurred and the origins of the people in the area remain very obscure. In this paper, we present data from the analyses of both Y chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) derived from human remains excavated from the Xiaohe cemetery, the oldest archeological site with human remains discovered in the Tarim Basin thus far. RESULTS: Mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that the Xiaohe people carried both the East Eurasian haplogroup (C) and the West Eurasian haplogroups (H and K), whereas Y chromosomal DNA analysis revealed only the West Eurasian haplogroup R1a1a in the male individuals. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrated that the Xiaohe people were an admixture from populations originating from both the West and the East, implying that the Tarim Basin had been occupied by an admixed population since the early Bronze Age. To our knowledge, this is the earliest genetic evidence of an admixed population settled in the Tarim Basin.

 

 

(Map of the Atay Mountains, Krasnoyarsk, and Mongolia)

The Altai Mountains (阿爾泰山脈) are a mountain range in central Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together, and where the rivers Irtysh, Ob and Yenisei have their sources. The Altai Mountains are known as the Turkic peoples' birthplace. The proposed Altaic language family (include the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages) takes its name from the mountain range.

The population during the Copper Age has been described as paleomongolid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as Europid in the west.

The Altai Mountains in what is now southern Russia and central China have been identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon. It is conjectured that climatic problems in this region around the start of the second millennium BC created ecological, economic and political changes which triggered a rapid and massive migration of peoples westward into northeast Europe and eastward into southeast China, Vietnam and Thailand across a frontier of some 4,000 miles. This migration took place in just five to six generations and led to peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing the same metal working technology and, in some areas, horse breeding and riding. It is further conjectured that this phenomenon may have been the medium through which the Uralic group of languages spread across Europe and Asia, ultimately producing 39 modern languages including Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian and Lappish.

* Videos: Altai Mountains • Russia, Altaic Peoples, TURAN: Epic of Identity, Scythians or Huns?

 

 

* Extended Y-Chromosome Investigation Suggests Post-Glacial Migrations of Modern Humans into East Asia Via the Northern Route by Hua Zhong, et al.

Abstract: Genetic diversity data, from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA as well as recent genome-wide autosomal SNPs, suggested that mainland Southeast Asia was the major geographic source of East Asian populations. However, these studies also detected Central-South Asia- and/or West Eurasia-related genetic components in East Asia, implying either recent population admixture or ancient migrations via the proposed northern route. To trace the time period and geographic source of these Central-South Asia- and West Eurasia-related genetic components, we sampled 3,826 males (116 populations from China and one population from South Korea) and performed high-resolution genotyping according to the well-resolved Y-chromosome phylogeny. Our data, in combination with the published East Asian Y-haplogroup data, show that there are four dominant haplogroups (accounting for 92.87% of the East Asian Y chromosomes), O-M175, D-M174, C-M130 (not including C5-M356) and N-M231, in both southern and northern East Asian populations, which is consistent with the proposed southern route of modern human origin in East Asia. However, there are other haplogroups (6.79% in total) (E-SRY4064, C5-M356, G-M201, H-M69, I-M170, J-P209, L-M20, Q-M242, R-M207 and T-M70) detected primarily in northern East Asian populations, and were identified as Central-South Asian and/or West Eurasian origin based on the phylogeographic analysis. In particular, evidence of geographic distribution and Y-STR diversity indicate that haplogroup Q-M242 (the ancestral haplogroup of the native American-specific haplogroup Q1a3a-M3) and R-M207 probably migrated into East Asia via the northern route. The age estimation of Y-STR variation within haplogroups suggests the existence of post-Glacial (∼18 thousand years ago, kya) migrations via the northern route as well as recent (∼3 kya) population admixture. We propose that although the Paleolithic migrations via the southern route played a major role in modern human settlement in East Asia, there are ancient contributions, though limited, from western Eurasia which partly explain the genetic divergence between current southern and northern East Asian populations.

 

 

* Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Populations by Hiroki Oota, et al.

Population Tree, Showing mtDNA Homogeneity in Asia

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Finns - Kirghiz Lowlander - British - Kazakh - Turks - Basques - Sardinian

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Finns - Indian - Ainu - Aboriginal Australian - Anatolia Turks - Borneo

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Korean - Philippines - Uighurs - Changsha - Taiwanese (aborigines) - Vietnamese - Vanuata - Indonesian - PNG

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Xi'an - Tottori (Japanese) - Kirghiz Highlander - Mongolian - Ngoebe - Altai of Siberia - Amerind - Argentina - Siberians

 

 

Kyrgyz People

The Kyrgyz (also spelled Kirgiz, Kirghiz) are a Turkic ethnic group found primarily in Kyrgyzstan.

Origins: The early Kyrgyz people, known as Yenisei Kyrgyz or Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), first appear in written records in the Chinese annals of the Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (compiled 109 BC to 91 BC), as Gekun or Jiankun (鬲昆 or 隔昆). The Middle Age Chinese composition "Tanghuiyao" of the 8-10th century transcribed the name "Kyrgyz" Tsze-gu (Kirgut), and their tamga was depicted as identical to the tamga of present day Kyrgyz tribes Azyk, Bugu, Cherik, Sary Bagysh and few others. According to recent historical findings, Kyrgyz history dates back to 201 BC. The Yenisei Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia. Yenisei Kyrgyzes in the Late Antique times were a part of the Tiele tribes. Later, in the Early Middle Age, Yenisei Kyrgyzes were under the rule of Göktürk Kaganate and Uigur Kaganate. In 840 a revolt led by Yenisei Kyrgyzes brought down the Uigur Kaganate, and brought the Yenisei Kyrgyzes to a dominating position in the former Turkic Kaganate. With the rise to power, the center of the Kyrgyz Kaganate moved to Jeti-su, and brought about a spread south of the Kyrgyz people, to reach Tian Shan mountains and Eastern Turkestan, bringing them immediately to the borders of China and Tibet. By the 16th century the carriers of the ethnonym "Kirgiz" lived in South Siberia, Eastern Turkestan, Tian Shan, Pamir-Alay, Middle Asia, Urals (among Bashkorts), in Kazakhstan. In the Tian Shan and Eastern Turkestan area, the term "Kyrgyz" retained its unifying political designation, and became a general ethnonym for the Yenisei Kirgizes and aboriginal Turkic tribes that presently constitute the Kyrgyz population. Though it is obviously impossible to directly identify the Yenisei and Tien Shan Kyrgyzes, a trace of their ethnogenetical connections is apparent in archaeology, history, language and ethnography. Majority of modern researchers came to a conclusion that the ancestors of the southern Kyrgyz tribes had their origin in the most ancient tribal unions of Sakas and Usuns, Dinlins and Huns. Approximately 300,000 Yenisei Kyrgyzes survived in the Tuva depression until present.

V.V. Bartold cites Chinese and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th centuries AD that describe the Kyrgyz as having red, sometimes blond hair, blue or green eyes, and white skin. These features were markedly different from those of modern Kyrgyz, which led Ibn al-Muqaffa to suggest in the 8th century AD that the Kyrgyz were related to the Slavs.

The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is confirmed by recent genetic studies. Remarkably, 63% of modern Kyrgyz men share Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) with Tajiks (64%), Ukrainians (54%), Poles and Hungarians (~60%), and even Icelanders (25%). Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) is often believed to be a marker of the Proto-Indo-European language speakers.

Because of the processes of migration, conquest, intermarriage, and assimilation, many of the Kyrgyz peoples that now inhabit Central and Southwest Asia are of mixed origins, often stemming from fragments of many different tribes, though they speak closely related languages.

 

 

Yenisei Kirghiz

A funerary mask from Tashtyk; see more Tashtyk death masks at the State Hermitage Museum

 

 

* Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times by Yali Xue, et al.

Populations Sampled

 

Geographical Distributions of Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups P*(xR1a), R1a, J

(Outer Mongolian, Xibe, Uygur 2, Han Xinjiang, Uygur 1, Hui, Qiang, Korea)

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

NRY Haplogroup Distribution in Han Populations

R: 0%

Population	n	C*	D/E	D1	F*	K*	O3*	O3d	O3e	O1*	O1b	O2a*	O2a1	Q1	P*
		M130	YAP	M15	M89	M9	M122	M7	M134	M119	M110	M95	M88	M120	M45
Northern Han
Gansu	60	7	5		6	10	11		11	5		1		3	1
Hebei	14				2	1	3		7	1
Henan	50	2			2	11	16		10	4				4	1
Liaoning	48	1	1		11	8	13		9	2		1		2
Neimeng	60	12	3		4	8	13		16	1		1		2
Shandong 1	85	14	1	2	3	12	36		12			1		4
Shandong 2	100	4			11	13	32		30	6		1		3
Shannxi 1	63	2	3		4	11	16		22	1		1		1	2
Shannxi 2	27				3	9	5		8	1				1
Xinjiang	51	2	1		3	9	15		15	2				2	2
Southern Han
Anhui	22	3				4	6		4	4				1
Fujian	148	4	1		3	21	80	6	24	3	1	4		1
Guangdong	64	3		1		8	15		19	5		7	5	1
Guangxi	26	2				4	4		5	4		2	5
Hubei	18	1				2	5	1	6	3
Hunan	15					2	5		4	2		2
Jiangsu	100	6	2		3	19	25	2	19	18		4		2
Jiangxi	21	1	1		2	4	4		5	3		1
Shanghai	55	4	2			9	14	1	9	14				2
Sichuan	63	3		1		10	16	2	18	5		6	2
Yunnan 1	27	3			1	1	5		15	1		1
Yunnan 2	66	4		2	2	15	25	4	10			2		2
Zhejiang	106	10				6	26		28	29		5		2

 

* Partial Duplication at AZFc on the Y Chromosome Is a Risk Factor for Impaired Spermatogenesis in Han Chinese in Taiwan by Yi-Wen Lin, et al.

The Y Chromosome Haplogroups of Han Taiwanese

R: 0.7%

 

 

* 中國人的Y染色體單倍型統計 by 復旦大學

序列號	姓氏	祖籍	Y單倍群	已測SNP
40	鄭	台灣	R1a1a*	M17+

 

388	19	389I	389b	390	391	392	393	426	437	438	439	448	456	458	635	H4	385a	385b
12	16	13	16	25	10	11	13	12	14	11	11						11	15

 

 

* Y-DNA Haplogroups by Populations of East and Southeast Asia by wikipedia.org

R: 0%

* Haplotype Frequencies of Nine Y-Chromosome STR Loci in the Taiwanese Han Population by Tsai LC, et al.

* A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania by Cristian Capelli, et al.

 

 

* Recent Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Indigenous Populations by Shu-Juo Chen, et al.

Map Showing the Locations of the Studied Populations

 

Y-Chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Asian and Oceanic Populations

H16 M17 R1a1: 0%

 

Markers in Su's Nomenclature System from A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

 

 

* 臺灣原住民族的Y 染色體多樣性與華南史前文化的關連性 by 陳叔倬

R: 0%

 

 

* The Distribution and Most Recent Common Ancestor of the 17q21 Inversion in Humans by Michael P. Donnelly, et al.

Abstract: The polymorphic inversion on 17q21, sometimes called the microtubular associated protein tau (MAPT) inversion, is an approximately 900 kb inversion found primarily in Europeans and Southwest Asians. We have identified 21 SNPs that act as markers of the inverted, i.e., H2, haplotype. The inversion is found at the highest frequencies in Southwest Asia and Southern Europe (frequencies of approximately 30%); elsewhere in Europe, frequencies vary from < 5%, in Finns, to 28%, in Orcadians. The H2 inversion haplotype also occurs at low frequencies in Africa, Central Asia, East Asia, and the Americas, though the East Asian and Amerindian alleles may be due to recent gene flow from Europe. Molecular evolution analyses indicate that the H2 haplotype originally arose in Africa or Southwest Asia. Though the H2 inversion has many fixed differences across the approximately 900 kb, short tandem repeat polymorphism data indicate a very recent date for the most recent common ancestor, with dates ranging from 13,600 to 108,400 years, depending on assumptions and estimation methods. This estimate range is much more recent than the 3 million year age estimated by Stefansson et al. in 2005.

 

Global Distribution of the MAPT Inversion

 

MAPT Inversion Frequencies in East Asia

(MLY-Malaysians, LAO-Laos, CBD-Cambodian, CHS-Chinese San Francisco, CHT-Chinese Taiwan, HAK-Hakka, MNG-Mongol, MNC-Manchu, LOL-Lolo, HMG-Hmong, KOR-Korean, JPN-Japanese, AMI-Ami, ATL-Atayal)

 

 

* Intergenic DNA Sequences from the Human X Chromosome Reveal High Rates of Global Gene Flow by Murray P Cox, et al.

Geographic Representation of Population Migration Rates Nm

 

 

* Reduced Y-Chromosome, But Not Mitochondrial DNA, Diversity in Human Populations from West New Guinea by Manfred Kayser, et al.

Y-Chromosome Haplogroups and Their Frequency Distribution in WNG and an Additional 18 Populations from Asia/Oceania

Population abbreviations are as follows: Kor p Korea, Chi p China, TaC p Taiwan Chinese, Tai p Taiwan Aborigines, Phi p Philippines, Vie p Vietnam, Mal p Malaysia, Jav p Java, Bor p southern Borneo, Mol p Moluccas, Tenp Nusa Tenggara, TNB p Tolai New Britain, Tro p Trobriand Islands, PNC p PNG coast, PNH p PNG highlands, WNL p WNG lowlands/coast, WNH p WNG highlands, Coo p Cook Islands, Aus1pAustralia Arnhem Land, Aus2 p Australia Sandy Desert.

 

Y-Chromosome Haplogroup Frequencies (%) and Associated Haplotype Diversity in WNG and 18 Other Populations from Asia/Oceania

 

 

* The Himalayas as a Directional Barrier to Gene Flow by Tenzin Gayden, et al.

Geographic Distributions of Major Y-Chromosome Haplogroup Frequencies

(NIR: Northern Iran, SIR: Southern Iran, IRQ: Iraq, LEB: Lebanon, SYR: Syria, KAZ: Kazak, KYR: Kyrgyz, KAR: Karalkalpak, SHU: Shugnan, MON: Mongolia, TIB: Tibet, ADI: Adi, GUJ: Gujarat, PUN: Punjab, pak: Pakistan, TAM: Tamang, NEW: Newar, KAT: Kathmandu, KOR: Korea, JAP: Japan, TUV: Tuva, BUR: Buryat, MAN: Manchu)

 

 

* The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity by R. Spencer Wells, et al.

Geographic Distribution of Y-Chromosome Haplotypes in Selected Eurasian Populations

(M17: R1a1a, M173: R1)

 

 

* Haplogroup R1 (M173) by The Genographic Project

Excerpt: As humans continued to move west, a man born around 30,000 years ago in Central Asia gave rise to a lineage defined by the genetic marker M173. His descendants were part of the first large wave of humans to reach Europe.

During this period, the Eurasian steppelands extended from present-day Germany, and possibly France, to Korea and China. the climate fostered a land rich in resources and opened a window into Europe.

 

 

Kurgan Hypothesis

The Kurgan hypothesis is one of the proposals about early Indo-European origins, which postulates that the people of an archaeological "Kurgan culture" (a term grouping the Yamna, or Pit Grave, culture and its predecessors) in the Pontic steppe were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language. The term is derived from kurgan (курган), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a tumulus or burial mound.

The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins. An alternative model is the Anatolian urheimat. Many Indo-Europeanists are agnostic on the question.

The Kurgan hypothesis was first formulated in the 1950s by Marija Gimbutas, who defined the "Kurgan culture" as composed of four successive periods, with the earliest (Kurgan I) including the Samara and Seroglazovo cultures of the Dnieper/Volga region in the Copper Age (early 4th millennium BC). The bearers of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium BC expanded throughout the Pontic-Caspian steppe and into Eastern Europe.

Genetics: During the last glacial maximum (25,000 to 13,000 years ago), it is likely that the population of Europe retreated into refuges, one being Ukraine. A specific haplogroup R1a1 defined by the M17 (SNP marker) of the Y chromosome is associated by some researchers with the Kurgan culture. The haplogroup R1a1 is "currently found in central and western Asia, Pakistan, India, and in Slavic populations of Eastern Europe", but it is rare in most countries of Western Europe (e.g. France, or some parts of Great Britain). However, 23.6% of Norwegians, 18.4% of Swedes, 16.5% of Danes, 11% of Saami share this lineage. Investigations suggest the Hg R1a1 gene expanded from the Dnieper-Don Valley, between 13,000 and 7600 years ago, and was linked to the reindeer hunters of the Ahrensburg culture that started from the Dnieper valley in Ukraine and reached Scandinavia 12,000 years ago. Alternatively, it has been suggested that R1a1 arrived in southern Scandinavia during the time of the Corded Ware culture.

Ornella Semino et al. propose a postglacial spread of the R1a1 gene during the Late Glacial Maximum subsequently magnified by the expansion of the Kurgan culture into Europe and eastward. R1a1 is most prevalent in Poland, Russia, and Ukraine and is also observed in Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Central Asia and India.

Recent genetic studies seem to confirm a west Eurasian origin for most of the Y-DNA haplogroup R1a1 likely linked to early Indo-European populations. Remains of the Andronovo culture horizon (strongly supposed to be culturally Indo-Iranian) of south Siberia were found to be 90% of west Eurasian origin during the Bronze Age and associated almost exclusively with haplogroup R1a1 (and 77% overall, in the Bronze/Iron Age timeframe). The DNA testing also indicated a high prevalence of people with characteristics such as blue (or green) eyes, fair skin and light hair, implying even more an origin close to Europe for this population. Remains in Kazakhstan of the Bronze/Iron Age timeframe, also of the Andronovo culture horizon, were also mostly of west Eurasian stock.

Several 4600 year-old human remains at a Corded Ware site in Eulau, Germany, were also found to belong to haplogroup R1a1.

These elements tend to strongly support the Kurgan hypothesis.

Another marker that closely corresponds to Kurgan migrations is distribution of blood group B allele, mapped by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. The distribution of blood group B allele in Europe matches the proposed map of Kurgan Culture, and Haplogroup R1a1 (YDNA) distribution.

One difficulty in interpreting the genetic evidence lies in the fact that, according to the mainstream archaeological view, there were likely not one but two separate waves of westbound expansion of foreign cultures throughout Europe. The first wave was associated with the advent of farming; it brought the so-called "Neolithic package" to the Southeastern Europe circa 6500 BC, and eventually reached the Baltic circa 5000 BC. It is represented in the archaeological record as the Linear Pottery culture. Its origins are well established by various means to be located in Anatolia, more specifically, the area near the present-day Turkish-Syrian border. The Kurgan hypothesis posits that a distinct wave of expansion occurred roughly 2 to 3 millennia later, with its origin some 1000 km to the north. An alternative theory, the Anatolian hypothesis, conflates the two events, thus pushing back the origin of the proto-Indo-European language to the 7th millennium BC.

 

 

* Migration Waves to the Baltic Sea Region by T. Lappalainen, et al.

The Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup Frequencies (%) within the Populations, and Their Linguistic Affiliations

( Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Karelian, Finnish, Swedish)

 

Suggested Arrival Routes of the Most Important Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups in the Baltic Area, with the Dotted Arrows Denoting Less Certain Routes

 

 

* High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations by Marijana Pericˇic´, et al.

Table 1: Summarized Percent Frequencies of R1b, R1a, I1b* (xM26), E3b1 and J2e

 

 

* High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations by Marijana Peričić, et al.

Abstract: The extent and nature of southeastern Europe (SEE) paternal genetic contribution to the European genetic landscape were explored based on a high-resolution Y chromosome analysis involving 681 males from seven populations in the region. Paternal lineages present in SEE were compared with previously published data from 81 western Eurasian populations and 5,017 Y chromosome samples. The finding that five major haplogroups (E3b1, I1b* (xM26), J2, R1a, and R1b) comprise more than 70% of SEE total genetic variation is consistent with the typical European Y chromosome gene pool. However, distribution of major Y chromosomal lineages and estimated expansion signals clarify the specific role of this region in structuring of European, and particularly Slavic, paternal genetic heritage. Contemporary Slavic paternal gene pool, mostly characterized by the predominance of R1a and I1b* (xM26) and scarcity of E3b1 lineages, is a result of two major prehistoric gene flows with opposite directions: the post-Last Glacial Maximum R1a expansion from east to west, the Younger Dryas-Holocene I1b* (xM26) diffusion out of SEE in addition to subsequent R1a and I1b* (xM26) putative gene flows between eastern Europe and SEE, and a rather weak extent of E3b1 diffusion toward regions nowadays occupied by Slavic-speaking populations.

Excerpt: R1a haplogroup occurs at 16% frequency in SEE (fig. 2). The age of M17 has been approximated to 15 KYA (Semino et al. 2000; Wells et al. 2001). Kivisild et al. (2003) suggested that southern and western Asia might be the source of R1 and R1a differentiation. Current R1a-M17/SRY-1532 distribution in Europe shows an increasing west-east frequency and variance gradients with peaks among Finno-Ugric and Slavic speakers (fig. 5C and D). Similar to I1b* (xM26), R1a frequency gradient decreases slowly to the south (to 10% in Albanians, 8% in Greeks, and 7% in Turks) and abruptly in the west (3% in Italians) (table 1). R1a frequency and STR variance decrease in the north-south direction in SEE, from 34%–25% in mainland Croatians and Bosnians to 12%–16% in Herzegovinians, Macedonians, and Serbians (fig. 5A and B). Moreover, R1a frequency is significantly correlated with latitude (table 2) when all studied SEE populations are considered (r 5 0.865, P 5 0.01) and also when Kosovar Albanians and Macedonian Romani are excluded (r 5 0.743, P 5 0.01). High R1a haplotype diversity in SEE is evident in the phylogenetic network (fig. 8C) and the estimated range expansion at 15.8 6 2.1 KYA, consistent with its deep Paleolithic time depth, as previously suggested (Semino et al. 2000; Wells et al. 2001). At this level of resolution, it is not clear what temporal and effective population size differences contributed to this deep Paleolithic signal as high R1a variance in SEE might be explained by either ancient demography or more recent bottlenecks and founder effects in different Slavic tribes. At least three major episodes of gene flow might have enhanced R1a variance in the region: early post-LGM recolonizations expanding from the refugium in Ukraine, migrations from northern Pontic steppe between 3000 and 1000 B.C., as well as possibly massive Slavic migration from A.D. 5th to 7th centuries.

R1b haplogroup is present in SEE at a level of 9% (fig. 2). R1b-M173 lineages are considered to trace an Upper Paleolithic migration from West Asia to European regions then occupied by Aurignacian culture (Semino et al. 2000; Underhill et al. 2001; Wells et al. 2001). The spatial distribution of R1b lineages shows a frequency peak (40%–80%) in western Europe and a decrease in eastern (with the exception of 43% in the Ossetians) and southern Europe (fig. 6C), whereas R1b variance shows multiple peaks in West Europe and Asia Minor (fig. 6D). While R1b variance displays a clear-cut northwestern-southeastern decline in SEE (fig. 6B), R1b frequency decline continues from western toward southeastern and southern Europe, but two intermediate local peaks are evident, in north among mainland Croatians and Serbians and in south among Kosovar Albanians, Albanians, and Greeks (fig. 6C). These spatial patterns might be due to the fact that R1b lineages contain associated RFLP 49a,f ht 15 and 35 sublineages with opposite distributions possibly reflecting repeopling of Europe from Iberia and Asia Minor during the Late Upper Paleolithic and Holocene (Cinniog˘ lu et al. 2004). The overall R1b frequency distribution in the Balkan Peninsula suggests its possible arrival from two different source populations during recolonization of Europe. We estimated the range expansion of R1b lineages in SEE at 11.6 6 1.4 KYA. Although R1b lineages could have accumulated STR variance before diffusion in SEE, it is significant that its estimated range expansion almost perfectly matches the coalescent estimate for the I1b* (xM26) lineages, pointing to the YD to Holocene transition as possibly a period when these two major Y chromosome lineages started to expand in the region.

 

Map of the Studied Region and Sample Locations

 

Y Chromosomal SNP Tree and Haplogroup Frequencies (percent) in Seven SEE Populations

 

 

* Separating the Post-Glacial Coancestry of European and Asian Y Chromosomes within Haplogroup R1a by Peter A Underhill, et al.

Abstract: Human Y-chromosome haplogroup structure is largely circumscribed by continental boundaries. One notable exception to this general pattern is the young haplogroup R1a that exhibits post-Glacial coalescent times and relates the paternal ancestry of more than 10% of men in a wide geographic area extending from South Asia to Central East Europe and South Siberia. Its origin and dispersal patterns are poorly understood as no marker has yet been described that would distinguish European R1a chromosomes from Asian. Here we present frequency and haplotype diversity estimates for more than 2000 R1a chromosomes assessed for several newly discovered SNP markers that introduce the onset of informative R1a subdivisions by geography. Marker M434 has a low frequency and a late origin in West Asia bearing witness to recent gene flow over the Arabian Sea. Conversely, marker M458 has a significant frequency in Europe, exceeding 30% in its core area in Eastern Europe and comprising up to 70% of all M17 chromosomes present there. The diversity and frequency profiles of M458 suggest its origin during the early Holocene and a subsequent expansion likely related to a number of prehistoric cultural developments in the region. Its primary frequency and diversity distribution correlates well with some of the major Central and East European river basins where settled farming was established before its spread further eastward. Importantly, the virtual absence of M458 chromosomes outside Europe speaks against substantial patrilineal gene flow from East Europe to Asia, including to India, at least since the mid-Holocene.

 

Geographic Distribution of Haplogroup R1a1a Frequency

 

 

* Origins, Age, Spread and Ethnic Association of European Haplogroups and Subclades by eupedia.com

Map of Middle Bronze Age Cultures in Europe from Approximately 4,000 to 3,500 Years Ago

 

Hypothetical Map of Y-DNA Haplogroup Distribution in Europe About 2,000 Years ago

 

History of R1b from the Ice Age Origins until the Beginning of the Hallstatt Period (1200 BC)

 

Distribution of Haplogroup R1b in Europe

 

Distribution of Haplogroup R1a in Eurasia

 

 

* Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup R by genebase

The Movements of Human Populations Bearing Haplogroup R

 

 

* Haplogroup R (Y-DNA) by wikipedia.org

Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red)

 

 

Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup R1b is the most frequently occurring Y-chromosome haplogroup in Western Europe, parts of central Eurasia (for example Bashkortostan), and in parts of sub-Saharan Central Africa (for example around Chad and Cameroon). R1b is also present at lower frequencies throughout Eastern Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, and parts of North Africa. Due to European emigration it also reaches high frequencies in the Americas and Australia. While Western Europe is dominated by the R1b1a2 (R-M269) branch of R1b, the Chadic-speaking area in Africa is dominated by the branch known as R1b1c (R-V88). These represent two very successful "twigs" on a much bigger "family tree".

Origin: The point of origin of R1b is thought to lie in Eurasia, most likely in Western Asia. T. Karafet et al. estimated the age of R1, the parent of R1b, as 18,500 years before present.

Early research focused upon Europe. In 2000 Ornella Semino and colleagues argued that R1b had been in Europe before the end of Ice Age, and had spread north from an Iberian refuge after the Last Glacial Maximum. Age estimates of R1b in Europe have steadily decreased in more recent studies, with Neolithic age estimates being more common. However some authors continue to argue for an older date.

Barbara Arredi and colleagues were the first to point out that the distribution of R1b variance forms a cline from east to west, which is more consistent with an entry into Europe from Western Asia with the spread of farming. A 2009 paper by Chiaroni et al. added to this perspective by using R1b as an example of a wave haplogroup distribution, in this case from east to west. The proposal of a southeastern origin of R1b were supported by three detailed studies based on large datasets published in 2010. These detected that the earliest subclades of R1b are found in western Asia and the most recent in western Europe. While age estimates in these articles are all more recent than the Last Glacial Maximum, all mention the Neolithic, when farming was introduced to Europe from the Middle East as a possible candidate period. Myres et al. (August 2010), and Cruciani et al. (August 2010) both remained undecided on the exact dating of the migration or migrations responsible for this distribution, not ruling out migrations earlier or later than the Neolithic.

European R1b is now known to be dominated by R-M269, and the origins of this branch are discussed further in more detail below.

Although it is rare in South Asia, some populations show relatively high percentages for R1b. These include Lambadi (Andhra Pradesh) showing 37%, Hazara 32% and Agharia (East India) at 30%. Besides these, R1b has appeared in Balochi (8%), Chenchu (2%), Makrani (5%), Newars (Nepal) (10.6%), Pallan (3.5%), Pathan (10%), Punjabi (7.6%) and West Bengalis (6.5%).

 

 

Spanish Formosa

Spanish Formosa was a Spanish colony established in the north of Taiwan (then known as Formosa) from 1626 to 1642. Designed to protect Spanish and Portuguese trade from interference by the Dutch base in the south of Taiwan, the colony was short-lived due to the unwillingness of colonial authorities in Manila to commit men and materiel to defending it. After seventeen years the last fortress of the Spanish was besieged by Dutch forces, and eventually fell, giving the Dutch control over most of the island.

Background: In the early seventeenth century Catholic Spain was in competition with Protestant Holland for trade and influence in East Asia. With the establishment of a Dutch colony at Tayouan (present-day Anping) in the south of Taiwan, the Dutch gained the ability to effectively threaten Spanish trade in the region. As a counter to this threat, the Spanish decided to establish their own colony in the north of the island.

The Early Years (1626–1629): After landing at Cape Santiago (now Sandiao) in the north-east of Taiwan but finding it unsuitable for defensive purposes, the Spanish continued westwards along the coast until they arrived at Keelung. A deep and well-protected harbour plus a small island in the mouth of the harbour made it the ideal spot to build the first settlement, which they named Santissima Trinidad. Forts were built, both on the island and in the harbour itself.

In 1629 the Spanish set up their second base, centred around Fort San Domingo in Danshui.

First Battle with the Dutch: In 1641 the Spanish had become such an irritant to the Dutch in the south that it was decided to take northern Taiwan from the Spanish by force. In courteous terms, the Dutch Governor Paulus Traudenius informed the Spanish governor of their intentions.

Sir,
I have the honor to communicate to you that I have received the command of a considerable naval and military force with the view of making me master by civil means or otherwise of the fortress Santissima Trinidad in the isle of Ke-lung of which your Excellency is the Governor.
In accordance with the usages of Christian nations to make known their intentions before commencing hostilities, I now summon your Excellency to surrender. If your Excellency is disposed to lend an ear to the terms of capitulation which we offer and make delivery to me of the fortress of Santissima Trinidad and other citadels, your Excellency and your troops will be treated in good faith according to the usages and customs of war, but if your Excellency feigns to be deaf to this command there will be no other remedy than recourse to arms. I hope that your Excellency will give careful consideration to the contents of this letter and avoid the useless effusion of blood, and I trust that without delay and in a few words you will make known to me your intentions.
May God protect your Excellency many years,
The Friend of your Excellency,
PAULUS TRAUDENIUS

The Spanish governor was not inclined to give in so easily, and replied in kind.

Sir; I have duly received your communication of August 26th, and in response I have the honor to point out to you that as becomes a good Christian who recalls the oath he has made before his king, I cannot and will not surrender the forts demanded by your Excellency, as I and my garrison have determined to defend them. I am accustomed to find myself before great armies, and I have engaged in numerous battles in Flanders as well as other countries, and so I beg of you not to take the trouble of writing me further letters of like tenor. May each one defend himself as best he can. We are Spanish Christians and God in whom we trust is our protector.
May the Lord have mercy on you.
Written in our principal fortress San Salvador the 6th of September 1641.
GONSALO PORTILIS

Subsequently the Dutch launched an assault on the northern regions, but the Spanish positions were well-defended and the attacking troops were not able to breach the walls of the fortresses. They returned, thwarted, to the Dutch base at Fort Zeelandia.

* Video: Formosa española

* The "Justification" of the Spanish Intrusion in Taiwan in 1626 by Jose Eugenio Borao

 

 

Dutch Formosa

Dutch Formosa refers to the period of colonial Dutch government on Formosa (now known as Taiwan), lasting from 1624 to 1662. In the context of the Age of Discovery the Dutch East India Company established its presence on Taiwan to trade with China and Japan, and also to interdict Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonial activities in East Asia.

The time of Dutch rule saw economic development in Taiwan, including both large-scale hunting of deer and the cultivation of rice and sugar by imported labour from Fujian in China. The government also attempted to convert the aboriginal inhabitants to Christianity and suppress some cultural activities they found disagreeable (such as forced abortion and habitual nakedness), in other words, to "civilise" the inhabitants of the island.

However, they were not universally welcomed and uprisings by both aborigines and recent Han Chinese arrivals were crushed brutally by the Dutch military on more than one occasion. The colonial period was brought to an end by the invasion of Koxinga's army after just 37 years.

History

Early years (1624–1625): On deciding to set up in Taiwan and in common with standard practice at the time, the Dutch built a defensive fort to act as a base of operations. This was built on the sandy peninsula of Tayouan (now part of mainland Taiwan, in the current-day district of Anping). The site chosen was accessible from the sea and had good sightlines for defensive purposes, but lacked fresh water, which had to be shipped from the mainland.

Growing control, pacification of the aborigines (1626–1636): The first order of business was to punish villages that had violently opposed the Dutch and unite the aborigines in allegiance with the VOC. The first punitive expedition was against the villages of Bakloan and Mattau, north of Saccam near Tayowan. The Mattau campaign had been easier than expected and the tribe submitted after having their village razed by fire. The campaign also served as a threat to other villages from Tirosen (Chiayi) to Longkiau (Hengchun).

Pax Hollandica and the ousting of the Spanish (1636–1642): Following the pacification campaigns of 1635–6, more and more villages came to the Dutch to swear allegiance, sometimes out of fear of Dutch military action, and sometimes for the benefits which Dutch protection could bring (food and security). These villages stretched from Longkiau in the south (125 km from the Dutch base at Fort Zeelandia to Favorlang in central Taiwan, 90 km to the north of Fort Zeelandia. The relative calm of this period has been called the Pax Hollandica (Dutch Peace) by some commentators (a reference to the Pax Romana).

One area not under their control was the north of the island, which from 1626 had been under Spanish sway, with their two settlements at Tamsuy and Keelung. The fortification at Keelung was abandoned because the Spanish lacked the resources to maintain it, but Fort Santo Domingo in Tamsuy was seen as a major obstacle to Dutch ambitions on the island and the region in general.

In 1642, the Dutch sent an expedition of soldiers and aboriginal warriors in ships to Tamsuy, managing to dislodge the small Spanish contingent from their fortress and drive them from Taiwan. Following this victory, the Dutch set about bringing the northern villages under their banner in a similar way to the pacification campaign carried out in the previous decade in the south.

Growing Chinese presence and the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion (1643–1659): The Dutch began to encourage large-scale Chinese immigration to the island, mainly from Fujian. Most of the immigrants were young single males who were discouraged from staying on the island often referred to by Han as "The Gate of Hell" for its reputation in taking the lives of sailors and explorers. After one uprising by Han Chinese in 1640, the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652 saw an organised insurrection against the Dutch, fuelled by anger over punitive taxes and corrupt officials. The Dutch again put down the revolt hard, with fully 25% of those participating in the rebellion being killed over a period of a couple of weeks.

Siege of Zeelandia and the end of Dutch government on Formosa (1660–1662): In 1661, a naval fleet of 1000 warships, led by the Ming loyalist Koxinga, landed at Lu'ermen to attack Taiwan in order to destroy and oust the Dutch from Zeelandia. Following a nine month siege, Koxinga captured the Dutch Fort Zeelandia and defeated the Dutch. Koxinga then forced the Dutch Government to sign a peace treaty at Zeelandia on 1 February 1662, and leave Taiwan. From then on, Taiwan became Koxinga's base for the Kingdom of Tungning.

Coda: The Dutch retake Keelung (1664–1668): After being ousted from Taiwan the Dutch allied with the new Qing Dynasty in China against the Zheng regime in Taiwan. Following some skirmishes the Dutch retook the northern fortress at Keelung in 1664. Zheng Jing sent troops to dislodge the Dutch, but they were unsuccessful. The Dutch held out at Keelung until 1668, when aborigine resistance (likely incited by Zheng Jing) and the lack of progress in retaking any other parts of the island persuaded them to give up their last stronghold and retreat from Taiwan altogether.

Demographics

Prior to the arrival of the Dutch colonists, Taiwan was almost exclusively populated by Taiwanese aborigines; Austronesian peoples who lived in a hunter-gatherer society while also practicing swidden agriculture. It is difficult to arrive at an estimate of the numbers of these native Formosans when the Dutch arrived, as there was no island-wide authority in a position to count the population, while the aborigines themselves did not keep written records. Even at the extent of greatest Dutch control in the 1650s there were still large regions of the island outside the pale of Dutch authority, meaning that any statistics given necessarily relate only to the area of Dutch suzerainty.

The population of Dutch Formosa was composed of three main groups; the aborigines, the Dutch contingent, and the Chinese. There were also a number of Spanish people resident in the north of the island between 1626 and 1642 in the area around Keelung and Danshui. At times there were also a handful of Japanese trader-pirates known as Wakō operating out of coastal areas outside Dutch control.

The Aborigines: The native Formosan peoples had been in Taiwan for many thousands of years before the Dutch arrived. Estimates of the total numbers of aborigines in Taiwan are difficult to come by, but one commentator suggests that there were 150,000 over the entire island during the Dutch era. They lived in villages with populations ranging from a couple of hundred up to around 2,000 people for the biggest towns, with different groups speaking different Formosan languages which were not mutually intelligible.

The Dutch: The Dutch contingent was initially composed mostly of soldiers, with some slaves and other workers from the other Dutch colonies, particularly the area around Batavia (current day Jakarta). The number of soldiers stationed on the island waxed and waned according to the military needs of the colony, from a low of 180 troops in the early days to a high of 1,800 shortly before Koxinga's invasion. There were also a number of other personnel, from traders and merchants to missionaries and schoolteachers, plus the Dutch brought with them slaves from their other colonies, who mainly served as personal slaves for important Dutch people.

 

 

* Prevalence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Taiwan: A Model for Strain Evolution Linked to Population Migration by Horng-Yunn Dou, et al.