TaiwanDNA.com

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Haplogroup O2 (P31, M268) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Haplogroup O2 is a descendent branch of the greater Haplogroup O.

Distribution: Although Haplogroup O2 is not found so frequently in modern human populations as its brother clade, Haplogroup O3, it is notable for the peculiarities of its geographical distribution. Like all clades of Haplogroup O, Haplogroup O2 is found only among the males of modern Eastern Eurasian populations. However, unlike Haplogroup O3, which is shared in common by almost all populations of Eastern Eurasia as well as many populations of Oceania, Haplogroup O2 is generally found only among certain populations, such as the Austroasiatic peoples of India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia, the Nicobarese of the Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean, and the Koreans, Japanese, and southern Tungusic peoples in China.

Besides its widespread and patchy distribution, Haplogroup O2 is also notable for the fact that it can be divided into two major subclades that show almost completely disjunct distribution. One of these subclades, Haplogroup O2a (M95), is found among some (mostly tribal) populations of South and Southeast Asia, as well as among the Khmers of Cambodia and the Balinese of Indonesia. There are also some reports that Haplogroup O2a may be associated with the so-called Negrito populations of mainland Southeast Asia, such as the Semang and the Senoi, but it is not clear whether this is their original Y-chromosome heritage or rather the result of incursion of Austroasiatic Y-chromosomes from the Khmers and related peoples who may have lent the Negritos their Austroasiatic languages in a manner similar to the Bantus' hypothesized lending of their languages and Haplogroup E Y-chromosomes to the pygmoid peoples of Africa, such as the Baka and Mbuti. The other major subclade, Haplogroup O2b (SRY465, M176), is found almost exclusively among the Korean, Japanese, Thai, Vietnamese and Indonesian.

Subclades: This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup subclades is based on ISOGG-2011

 

Haplogroup O2-M268

 

Haplogroup O2a (M95) is a descendent branch of Haplogroup O2. Its closest extant phylogenetic relatives are the Haplogroup O2* Y-chromosomes found at a low frequency throughout most of East Eurasia and the Haplogroup O2b Y-chromosomes found at low frequencies among the indigenous populations of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria and at much higher frequencies in Korea and Japan.

Distribution: Haplogroup O2a is distributed widely in Asia, from southern India to the Altai Mountains and Central Asia in the west, and from Indonesia to northern China and Japan in the east. It is found only at marginally low frequencies of approximately 1% at the periphery of its distribution in southern India, Central Asia, northern China, and Japan, but many populations within the vast intervening territory in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and southern China display a greatly elevated frequency of Haplogroup O2a Y-chromosomes. Patrilines within Haplogroup O2a predominate among the Austro-Asiatic populations of South and Southeast Asia, such as the Khmer of Cambodia and the Khasi of Meghalaya in northeastern India. Some researchers have reported that slightly over half of all men in a composite sample of Austro-Asiatic speakers belonged to Haplogroup O2a. Haplogroup O3 (M122), which attains its peak frequency among the Sino-Tibetan and Hmong-Mien peoples of China and Southeast Asia, and Haplogroup O1a (M119), which predominates among Taiwanese aborigines and many populations of the Philippines, also generally occur among speakers of Austro-Asiatic languages in South China and the Indochinese Peninsula, but usually at much lower frequencies than Haplogroup O2a. The hypothesis that Haplogroup O2a was the major Y-chromosome haplogroup of the proto-Austro-Asiatic population is strengthened by the fact that Haplogroup O2a is the only haplogroup found among many Austro-Asiatic-speaking tribes, such as the Juang of mainland India and the Shompen of the Nicobar Islands.

Haplogroup O2a also has been observed with high frequency in samples of Daic-speaking peoples of Thailand and neighboring areas, which may reflect assimilation of the older Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer populations that have left ample evidence of their presence in the region prior to the immigration of Daic speakers.

Outside of the region in which Austro-Asiatic languages are currently spoken or have a historically attested presence, Haplogroup O2a reaches its highest frequencies among the populations of the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo in western and central Indonesia. Haplogroup O2a has been found to be by far the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among the Balinese, occurring in approximately 58.6% (323/551) of a sample of Balinese men; Haplogroup O1a-M119 and Haplogroup O3-M122, which are typical of Austronesian peoples outside of Malaysia and Indonesia, were observed in only 18.1% (100/551) and 6.9% (38/551) of Balinese men. Haplogroup O2a has also been found to be the most frequently occurring haplogroup among Malay men in Singapore. The reason for its substantial presence in these populations, all of which are Austronesian-speaking, is yet to be elucidated.

 

Haplogroup O2b (SRY465, a.k.a. M176) is a descendant haplogroup of Haplogroup O2. Haplogroup O2b is found mainly in Korean Peninsula, Japan and the populations of Southeast Asia (including Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam), and Micronesians. This haplogroup is found with its highest frequency and diversity values among modern populations of SoutheastAsia and is absent from most populations in China, but it has been detected in some samples of Han Chinese from various southern Chinese provinces.

Subgroups: The phylogeography of Haplogroup O2b suggests an ancient origin in SoutheastAsia or Southern China, followed by a long period of isolated evolution and population increase in the vicinity of the Korean Peninsula. Only branches of this haplogroup that are labeled as Haplogroup O2b*, i.e. those that do not exhibit the 47z mutation, have been detected among the indigenous populations of Inner Mongolia and northern Manchuria, and even then they are found only at very low frequencies. However, Haplogroup O2b* Y-chromosomes have been detected with high frequency in Korea, where they account for approximately 14% to 33% of the Korean male population.

 

 

* Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times by Yali Xue, et al.

Populations Sampled

 

Geographical Distributions of Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup O1*, O2, and O3d

 

Geographical Distributions of Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup O2b*, O2b1

 

 

* Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups in the Japanese Population and Their Relationship to 16 Y-STR Polymorphisms by Nonaka I, et al.

Evolutionary Tree Based on YCC NRY Tree 2003 Showing Relationships and Frequencies
Among 20 Y Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups Observed in Japanese Population

 

 

* Y Chromosome Homogeneity in the Korean Population by Kim SH, et al.

Abstract: The distribution of Y-chromosomal variation from the 12 Y-SNP and 17 Y-STR markers was determined in six major provinces (Seoul-Gyeonggi, Gangwon, Chungcheong, Jeolla, Gyeongsang, and Jeju) to evaluate these populations' possible genetic structure and differentiation in Korea. As part of the present study, a 10-plex SNaPshot assay and two singleplex SNaPshot assays were developed. Based on the result of 12 Y-SNP markers (M9, M45, M89, M119, M122, M174, M175, M214, RPS4Y, P31, SRY465, and 47z), almost 78.9% of tested samples belonged to haplogroup O-M175 (including its subhaplogroups O3-M122: 44.3%, O2b*-SRY465: 22.5%, O2b1-47z: 8.7%), and 12.6% of the tested samples belonged to haplogroup C-RPS4Y. A total of 475 haplotypes were identified using 17 Y-STR markers included in the Yfiler kit, among which 452 (95.2%) were individual-specific. The overall haplotype diversity for the 17 Y-STR loci was 0.9997 and the discrimination capacity was 0.9387. Pairwise genetic distances and AMOVA of the studied Korean provinces reflected no patrilineal substructure in Korea, except for Jeju Island. Thus, this survey shows that the present data of Korean individuals could be helpful to establish a comprehensive forensic reference database for frequency estimation.

 

 

* High Frequencies of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup O2b-SRY465 Lineages in Korea: A Genetic Perspective on the Peopling of Korea by Soon-Hee Kim, et al.

Abstract

Background: Koreans are generally considered a Northeast Asian group, thought to be related to Altaic-language speaking populations. However, recent findings have indicated that the peopling of Korea might have been more complex, involving dual origins from both southern and northern parts of East Asia. To understand the male lineage history of Korea, more data from informative genetic markers from Korea and its surrounding regions are necessary. In this study, 25 Y-chromosome single nucleotide polymorphism markers and 17 Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (Y-STR) loci were genotyped in 1,108 males from several populations in East Asia.

Results: In general, we found East Asian populations to be characterized by male haplogroup homogeneity, showing major Y-chromosomal expansions of haplogroup O-M175 lineages. Interestingly, a high frequency (31.4%) of haplogroup O2b-SRY465 (and its sublineage) is characteristic of male Koreans, whereas the haplogroup distribution elsewhere in East Asian populations is patchy. The ages of the haplogroup O2b-SRY465 lineages (~9,900 years) and the pattern of variation within the lineages suggested an ancient origin in a nearby part of northeastern Asia, followed by an expansion in the vicinity of the Korean Peninsula. In addition, the coalescence time (~4,400 years) for the age of haplogroup O2b1-47z, and its Y-STR diversity, suggest that this lineage probably originated in Korea. Further studies with sufficiently large sample sizes to cover the vast East Asian region and using genomewide genotyping should provide further insights.

Conclusions: These findings are consistent with linguistic, archaeological and historical evidence, which suggest that the direct ancestors of Koreans were proto-Koreans who inhabited the northeastern region of China and the Korean Peninsula during the Neolithic (8,000-1,000 BC) and Bronze (1,500-400 BC) Ages.

 

Distribution of Y Haplogroup O Lineages in East Asia

 

 

* Genetic Affinities Among the Lower Castes and Tribal Groups of India: Inference from Y chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA by Ismail Thanseem, et al.

Y Chromosomal Haplogroups and Their Frequencies (%) in Three South Indian Tribal Populations

(Pardhan, Andh, Naikpod)

 

 

* Phylogeography of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Haplogroups Reveal Asymmetric Gene Flow in Populations of Eastern India by Sahoo S, et al.

Abstract: Polymorphisms in mitochondrial (mt) DNA and Y-chromosomes of seven socially and linguistically diverse castes and tribes of Eastern India were examined to determine their genetic relationships, their origin, and the influence of demographic factors on population structure. Samples from the Orissa Brahmin, Karan, Khandayat, Gope, Juang, Saora, and Paroja were analyzed for mtDNA hypervariable sequence (HVS) I and II, eight Y-chromosome short tandem repeats (Y-STRs), and lineage-defining mutations diagnostic for Indian- and Eurasian-specific haplogroups. Our results reveal that haplotype diversity and mean pairwise differences (MPD) was higher in caste groups of the region (>0.998, for both systems) compared to tribes (0.917-0.996 for Y-STRs, and 0.958-0.988 for mtDNA haplotypes). The majority of paternal lineages belong to the R1a1, O2a, and H haplogroups (62.7%), while 73.2% of maternal lineages comprise the Indian-specific M*, M5, M30, and R* mtDNA haplogroups, with a sporadic occurrence of West Eurasian lineages. Our study reveals that Orissa Brahmins (a higher caste population) have a genetic affinity with Indo-European speakers of Eastern Europe, although the Y-chromosome data show that the genetic distances of populations are not correlated to their position in the caste hierarchy. The high frequency of the O2a haplogroup and absence of East Asian-specific mtDNA lineages in the Juang and Saora suggest that a migration of Austro-Asiatic tribes to mainland India was exclusively male-mediated which occurred during the demographic expansion of Neolithic farmers in southern China. The phylogeographic analysis of mtDNA and Y-chromosomes revealed varied ancestral sources for the diverse genetic components of the populations of Eastern India.

 

Distribution of MtDNA and Y-Chromosome Lineages in Populations of Eastern India

(Juang, Saora)

 

 

* Y-Chromosome Evidence Suggests a Common Paternal Heritage of Austro-Asiatic Populations by Vikrant Kumar, et al.

Map Showing Present-Day Distribution of Austro-Asiatic Groups

 

Rooted Maximum-Parsimony Tree of Haplogroups Defined by Binary Markers Along with Their Frequency in Different Groups

(Mundari, Khasi, Nicobarese, Garo)

 

The Isofrequency Maps Portraying Spatial Distribution of Haplogroups in Asia and Oceania for O-M95

 

 

* The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages by Matthew E., et al.

Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup Frequencies in the Malagasy and in Potential Ancestral Populations

 

Pie Charts Illustrating the Relative Frequencies of the Different Haplogroups (colored to agree with the coloring of the phylogeny) Shown on a Map of the Indian Ocean

 

 

* Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosome Diversity of the Tharus (Nepal): A Reservoir of Genetic Variation by Simona Fornarino, et al.

Phylogeny and Frequencies (%) of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups in the Populations Studied

 

 

* Population Genetic Structure in Indian Austroasiatic Speakers: The Role of Landscape Barriers and Sex-Specific Admixture by Chaubey G, et al.

Abstract: The geographic origin and time of dispersal of Austroasiatic (AA) speakers, presently settled in south and southeast Asia, remains disputed. Two rival hypotheses, both assuming a demic component to the language dispersal, have been proposed. The first of these places the origin of Austroasiatic speakers in southeast Asia with a later dispersal to south Asia during the Neolithic, whereas the second hypothesis advocates pre-Neolithic origins and dispersal of this language family from south Asia. To test the two alternative models, this study combines the analysis of uniparentally inherited markers with 610,000 common single nucleotide polymorphism loci from the nuclear genome. Indian AA speakers have high frequencies of Y chromosome haplogroup O2a; our results show that this haplogroup has significantly higher diversity and coalescent time (17-28 thousand years ago) in southeast Asia, strongly supporting the first of the two hypotheses. Nevertheless, the results of principal component and "structure-like" analyses on autosomal loci also show that the population history of AA speakers in India is more complex, being characterized by two ancestral components-one represented in the pattern of Y chromosomal and EDAR results and the other by mitochondrial DNA diversity and genomic structure. We propose that AA speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations.

 

 

* Paternal Genetic Structure of Hainan Aborigines Isolated at the Entrance to East Asia by Li D., et al.

Abstract

Background: At the southern entrance to East Asia, early population migration has affected most of the Y-chromosome variations of East Asians.

Methodology/Pricipal Findings: To assess the isolated genetic structure of Hainan Island and the original genetic structure at the southern entrance, we studied the Y chromosome diversity of 405 Hainan Island aborigines from all the six populations, who have little influence of the recent mainland population relocations and admixtures. Here we report that haplogroups O1a* and O2a* are dominant among Hainan aborigines. In addition, the frequency of the mainland dominant haplogroup O3 is quite low among these aborigines, indicating that they have lived rather isolated. Clustering analyses suggests that the Hainan aborigines have been segregated since about 20 thousand years ago, after two dominant haplogroups entered East Asia (31 to 36 thousand years ago).

Conclusions/Significance: Our results suggest that Hainan aborigines have been isolated at the entrance to East Asia for about 20 thousand years, whose distinctive genetic characteristics could be used as important controls in many population genetic studies.

 

Y chromosome Haplogroup Frequencies

 

 

* Pinghua Population as an Exception of Han Chinese's Coherent Genetic Structure by Gan RJ, et al.

Abstract: The Han Chinese is the largest single ethnic group in the world, consisting of ten Chinese branches. With the exception of the Pinghua branch, the genetic structure of this group has been studied extensively, and Y chromosome and mitochondrial (mt)DNA data have demonstrated a coherent genetic structure of all Han Chinese. It is therefore believed that the Pinghua branch, being members of an old branch of the Han Chinese, despite being scattered in and around Guangxi Province where members of the Daic and Hmong-Mien are more prevalent than Han Chinese, is no exception. We have studied 470 individual samples (including 195 males) from Pinghua populations and other ethnic groups (Zhuang, Kam, Mulam, Laka, and Mien) from six areas (Hezhou, Fuchuan, Luocheng, Jinxiu, Sanjiang, and Wuxuan) in the north of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of China. Both mtDNA and the Y chromosomes were typed in these samples. High frequencies of the Y chromosome haplogroups O2a* and O*, which always present at a high frequency among the populations of the southern minorities, were found in Pinghua populations. Only Pinghua populations in Luocheng and Jinxiu maintain the Han frequent haplogroup O3a5a. mtDNA lineages B4a, B5a, M*, F1a, M7b1, and N* were found in Pinghua populations, exhibiting a pattern similar to the neighboring indigenous populations, especially the Daic populations. Cluster analyses (dendrograms, principal component analyses, and networks) of Pinghua populations, the other Han branches, and other ethnic groups in East Asia indicated that Pinghua populations are much closer to the southern minorities than to the other Han branches. Admixture analyses confirmed this result. In conclusion, we argue that Pinghua populations did not descend from Han Chinese, but from southern minorities. The ancestral populations of Pinghua people were assimilated by the Han Chinese in terms of language, culture, and self-identification and, consequently, the Pinghua people became an exceptional branch of Han Chinese's coherent genetic structure.

 

 

* Y-Chromosome Polymorphisms Define the Origin of the Mang, an Isolated Population in China by Tan S., et al.

Abstract: The Mang is an isolated population living at the border of Vietnam and China characterized by small stature and a primordial lifestyle. However, the origin of this population remains unclear. To clarify the origin of the Mang and its genetic relationship with other populations, 20 Y-chromosome markers were analyzed, including 12 biallelic markers and eight short tandem repeats (STR) in this population, and the data compared with published data from other populations in eastern Asia. Only three Y-chromosome haplogroups, O2a*-M95, O3d-M7 and O3e-M134, were identified in Mang. Among them, the southern haplogroups O2a*-M95 were most prevalent, with a frequency of 97%. Principal component analysis (PCA) plots showed that Mang clustered with southern populations but not with northern populations. In conclusion, the present study provided evidence for the first time that the Mang population is of southern origin.

 

 

* Analyses of Genetic Structure of Tibeto-Burman Populations Reveals Sex-Biased Admixture in Southern Tibeto-Burmans by Bo Wen, et al.

Y-SNP Haplogroup Frequency in TB Populations

 

 

* Y-Chromosome Genotyping and Genetic Structure of Zhuang Populations by Chen J., et al.

Abstract: Zhuang, the largest ethnic minority population in China, is one of the descendant groups of the ancient Bai-Yue. Linguistically, Zhuang languages are grouped into northern and southern dialects. To characterize its genetic structure, 13 East Asian-specific Y-chromosome biallelic markers and 7 Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (STR) markers were used to infer the haplogroups of Zhuang populations. Our results showed that O*, O2a, and O1 are the predominant haplogroups in Zhuang. Frequency distribution and principal component analysis showed that Zhuang was closely related to groups of Bai-Yue origin and therefore was likely to be the descendant of Bai-Yue. The results of principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis contradicted the linguistically derived north-south division. Interestingly, a west-east clinal trend of haplotype frequency changes was observed, which was supported by AMOVA analysis that showed that between-population variance of east-west division was larger than that of north-south division. O* network suggested that the Hongshuihe branch was the center of Zhuang. Our study suggests that there are three major components in Zhuang. The O* and O2a constituted the original component; later, O1 was brought into Zhuang, especially eastern Zhuang; and finally, northern Han population brought O3 into the Zhuang populations.

 

 

* Paternal Genetic Affinity Between Western Austronesians and Daic Populations by Hui Li, et al.

Geographic Distribution of Sampled Populations and Migration Routes Suggested by Y Chromosome Analysis

 

Y-SNP Haplogroup Frequencies of the Newly Studied Samples (%)

(C, D*, D1, F, M, K, O*, O1a*, O1a2, O2a*, O2a1, O3*, O3a1, O3a4, O3a5, O3a5a, P)

 

 

* 臺灣原住民族的Y 染色體多樣性與華南史前文化的關連性 by 陳叔倬

 

Prehistoric Cultures: Daxi (大溪), Wucheng (吳城)

 

* More Genetic Sharing among the Populations of Taiwan than Expected: A Plain tribes (Pinpu) Perspective by
Marie Lin, et al.

Results and Discussion: YSNP (paternal lineages) analysis showed 55% of Siraya and 70% of Pazeh men sharing paternal lineages O1a*, O1a1*, O1a2, O3*, O3a* and O3a3* with TwA and ISEA, and except for O1a* and O1a2, were also seen in Fujian (which we here classify as CSEA). Among other Y haplogroups, O2*, O2a*, O3a4*, O3a3c* and O3a3c1 comprised 40% of the Siraya and 28% of Pazeh gene pool and were also commonly seen all over CSEA and ISEA. Male movement between CSEA, ISEA and Taiwan will be better understood when high definition NRY-SNP determination (and associated Y-STR) of other Asian populations become available.

 

 

* 永恆的西拉雅族－遺傳基因的研究 by 林媽利

Excerpt: 分析173人男性的西拉雅族人的父系血緣，發現父系血緣約全部由O群構成，有O*，O1*，O1b，O2*，O2a*，O3a*(O3*)，O3c(O3a3)，O3a4b(O3d*)，O3a5a1(O3e1a)，O3a5a(O3e1*)，O3a5b(O3e*)及O3b血緣，除此外尚有少數C及N*的血緣。

這些血緣除了O1b血緣只出現在台灣原住民外，其他的血緣全分佈在別的亞洲族群，在我們超過1000人父系血緣的資料中，除O1b外其他的血緣也在中國、福建、越南、泰國、印尼及菲律賓找到。

西拉雅族共有14%(35/173)的父系血緣屬於原住民的O1b血緣，西拉雅族屬O1*血緣有71人，41%(71/173)，因O1*血緣可來自原住民(泰雅族有98%屬這血緣)也可來自福建移民，所以利用其中32人(SL)的16個YSTR結果與台灣原住民238人及福建人23人O1*父系血緣YSTR的資料做neighbor network分析，以探究西拉雅族人的O1*的父系血緣是來自福建移民或者是源自原來的台灣原住民。一起分析的O1* YSTR資料包括阿美族(AM)16人、泰雅族(AT)49人、排灣族(PW)15人、卑南族(PU)14人、魯凱族(RU)22人、賽夏族(SA, SB)21人、太魯閣族(TK)19人、邵族(TH)19人、鄒族(TS)38人、雅美族(YA, YB, YC, YD, YE, YF)25人、菲律賓巴丹人(BD)10人、台灣人(AD)5人及福建人(只有號碼)23人。分析的結果顯示在圖二的O1*父系血緣網狀關係圖上，中心的網狀處是顯示基因的相關性，這關係圖很明顯的把福建人與台灣原住民區分開來，灰色區為平埔族及高山原住民區，圈起來的區域(在時鐘9點的位置)為福建人區，可看到被分析的32人西拉雅族中8人落在福建人區，表示這8人或25% (8/32=25%) O1*西拉雅族父系血緣來自福建的移民(8人為SL233, SL320, SL314, SL316, SL014, SL019, SL030, SL321)，其他24人(75%)的O1*血緣落在高山原住民區(灰色區)，顯示這75%西拉雅族的O1*父系血緣來自原住民(平埔公或高山公)。在圖二西拉雅族及巴宰族屬原住民的O1*父系血緣常在同一區出現，顯示這兩族平埔族的父系血緣在遺傳上接近及相關。

 

 

* Partial Duplication at AZFc on the Y Chromosome Is a Risk Factor for Impaired Spermatogenesis in Han Chinese in Taiwan by Yi-Wen Lin, et al.

The Y Chromosome Haplogroups of Han Taiwanese

(C, D, N*, N1, N3, O*, O1*, O1a, O1b, O2, O3*, O3a, O3c, O3d, O3e, Q, R)

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

NRY Haplogroup Distribution in Han Populations

Population	n	C*	D/E	D1	F*	K*	O3*	O3d	O3e	O1*	O1b	O2a*	O2a1	Q1	P*
		M130	YAP	M15	M89	M9	M122	M7	M134	M119	M110	M95	M88	M120	M45
Northern Han
Gansu	60	7	5		6	10	11		11	5		1		3	1
Hebei	14				2	1	3		7	1
Henan	50	2			2	11	16		10	4				4	1
Liaoning	48	1	1		11	8	13		9	2		1		2
Neimeng	60	12	3		4	8	13		16	1		1		2
Shandong 1	85	14	1	2	3	12	36		12			1		4
Shandong 2	100	4			11	13	32		30	6		1		3
Shannxi 1	63	2	3		4	11	16		22	1		1		1	2
Shannxi 2	27				3	9	5		8	1				1
Xinjiang	51	2	1		3	9	15		15	2				2	2
Southern Han
Anhui	22	3				4	6		4	4				1
Fujian	148	4	1		3	21	80	6	24	3	1	4		1
Guangdong	64	3		1		8	15		19	5		7	5	1
Guangxi	26	2				4	4		5	4		2	5
Hubei	18	1				2	5	1	6	3
Hunan	15					2	5		4	2		2
Jiangsu	100	6	2		3	19	25	2	19	18		4		2
Jiangxi	21	1	1		2	4	4		5	3		1
Shanghai	55	4	2			9	14	1	9	14				2
Sichuan	63	3		1		10	16	2	18	5		6	2
Yunnan 1	27	3			1	1	5		15	1		1
Yunnan 2	66	4		2	2	15	25	4	10			2		2
Zhejiang	106	10				6	26		28	29		5		2

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Negritos

The term Negrito refers to several ethnic groups in isolated parts of Southeast Asia

Their current populations include 12 Andamanese tribes of the Andaman Islands, six Semang tribes of Malaysia, the Mani of Thailand, and the Aeta, Agta, Ati, and 30 other tribes of the Philippines. Reports from British traders also speak of negrito tribes on Borneo (Sarawak). (Journal of the Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XXIX, part 1, 1956)

Negritos share some common physical features with African pygmy populations, including short stature, natural afro-hair texture, and dark skin; however, their origin and the route of their migration to Asia is still a matter of great speculation. They are the most genetically distant human population from Africans at most loci studied thus far (except for MC1R, which codes for dark skin).

They have also been shown to have separated early from Asians, suggesting that they are either surviving descendants of settlers from an early migration out of Africa, or that they are descendants of one of the founder populations of modern humans.

Origins: Being among the least-known of all living human groups, the origins of the Negrito people is a much debated topic. The Malay term for them is orang asli, or original people.

They are likely descendants of the indigenous populations of the Sunda landmass and New Guinea, predating the Mongoloid peoples who later entered Southeast Asia.

Alternatively, some scientists claim they are merely a group of Australo-Melanesians who have undergone island dwarfing over thousands of years, reducing their food intake in order to cope with limited resources and adapt to a tropical rainforest environment. Anthropologist Jared Diamond in his bestselling book, Guns, Germs, and Steel suggests that the Negritos are possible ancestors of the Aboriginal Australians and Papuans of New Guinea. This assertion is echoed by Windshuttle and Gillin (2002).

A number of features would seem to suggest a common origin for the Negritos and African pygmies, especially in the Andamanese Islanders who have been isolated from incoming waves of Asiatic and Indo-Aryan peoples. No other living human population has experienced such long-lasting isolation from contact with other groups.

These features include short stature, very dark skin, woolly hair, scant body hair and occasional steatopygia. The claim that Andamanese pygmoids more closely resemble Africans than Asians in their cranial morphology in a 1973 study added some weight to this theory before genetic studies pointed to a closer relationship with Asians.

Other more recent studies have shown closer craniometric affinities to Egyptians and Europeans than to Sub Saharan populations such as that of African Pygmies. Walter Neves' study of the Lagoa Santa people had the incidental correlation of showing Andamanese as classifying closer to Egyptians and Europeans than any Sub Saharan population.

Multiple studies also show that Negritos from Southeast Asia to New Guinea share a closer cranial affinity with Australo-Melanesians. Further evidence for Asian ancestry is in craniometric markers such as sundadonty, shared by Asian and Negrito populations.

It has been suggested that the craniometric similarities to Asians could merely indicate a level of interbreeding between Negritos and later waves of people arriving from the Asian mainland. This hypothesis is not supported by genetic evidence that has shown the level of isolation populations such as the Andamanese have had.

However, some studies have suggested that each group should be considered separately, as the genetic evidence refutes the notion of a specific shared ancestry between the "Negrito" groups of the Andaman Islands, Malay Peninsula, and Philippines.

While earlier studies, such as that of WW Howell, allied Andamanese craniometrically with Africans, they did not have recourse to genetic studies. Later genetic and craniometric (mentioned earlier) studies have found more genetic affinities with Asians and Polynesians.

A study on blood groups and proteins in the 1950s suggested that the Andamanese were more closely related to Oceanic peoples than Africans. Genetic studies on Philippine Negritos, based on polymorphic blood enzymes and antigens, showed they were similar to surrounding Asian populations.

Genetic testing places all the Onge and all but two of the Great Andamanese in the mtDNA Haplogroup M, found in East Africa, East Asia, and South Asia, suggesting that the Negritos are at least partly descended from a migration originating in eastern Africa as much as 60,000 years ago. This migration is hypothesized to have followed a coastal route through India and into Southeast Asia, which is sometimes referred to as the Great Coastal Migration.

Analysis of mtDNA coding sites indicated that these Andamanese fall into a subgroup of M not previously identified in human populations in Africa and Asia. These findings suggest an early split from the population of African migrants whose descendants would eventually populate the entire habitable world. Haplogroup C and haplogroup D is believed to represent Y-DNA in the migration.

Negritos have also possibly lived in Taiwan. The Saisiyat people performed the songs and rites of the festival called Ritual of the Little Black People (矮靈祭). In fact, the short, black men the festival celebrates are one of the most ancient types of modern humans on this planet and their kin still survive in Asia today. They are said to be diminutive Africoids and are variously called Pygmies, Negritos and Aeta. Chinese historians called them "black dwarfs" in the Three Kingdoms period (AD 220 to AD 280) and they were still to be found in China during the Qing dynasty (1644 to 1911). In Taiwan they were called the "Little Black People" and, apart from being diminutive, they were also said to be broad-nosed and dark-skinned with curly hair.

After the Little Black People -- and well before waves of Han migrations after 1600 -- came the Aboriginal tribes, who are part of the Austronesian race. They are thought to have come from the Malay Archipelago 6,000 years ago at the earliest and around 1,000 years ago at the latest, though theories on Aborigine migration to Taiwan are still hotly debated. Gradually the Little Black People became scarcer, until a point about 100 years ago, when there was just a small group living near the Saisiyat tribe.

The story goes that the Little Black People taught the Saisiyat to farm by providing seeds and they used to party together. But one day, the Little Black People sexually harassed some Aboriginal women. So, the Saisiyat took revenge and killed them off by cutting a bridge over which they were all crossing. Just two Little Black People survived. Before departing eastward, they taught the Saisiyat about their culture and passed down some of their songs, saying if they did not remember their people they would be cursed and their crops would fail. There are other stories about them in other aboriginals. Their sites still remains.

According to James J.Y. Liu, a professor of comparative literature, the Chinese term Kun-lun (崑崙) means Negrito. There are many stories about them. Shandao, Geji (戈基), Juho, Wa and Koro-pok-guru peoples, are also said to be pygmies. Haplogroup D (Y-DNA) are found frequently among some peoples living in the same area. In China, stone coffins were used by these peoples.

* In honor of the Little Black People: The Saisiyat tribe of Hsinchu and Miaoli will perform a solemn rite this weekend to commemorate a race of people that they exterminated by Jules Quartly

* The Andamanese: Genetics and possible Relations by George Weber

* Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population by Kumarasamy Thangaraj, et al.

* The Peopling of the Philippines by Robert Lindsay

 

 

* Molecular Relatedness of The Aboriginal Groups of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Similar Ethnic Populations by V. K. Kashyap, et al.

Abstract: The aboriginal tribal groups living in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are thought to be the descendants of people who were part of the early human dispersal into the Southeast Asia. However, the origin of the tribes of Andaman, the region from where the aboriginals arrived and the route of their migration are still a matter of great speculation. To explore the origin and affinities of the Andaman Islanders, we studied the polymorphism at fifteen autosomal short tandem repeat (STR) loci, mitochondrial control region sequences and eight Y chromosomal STR loci in 194 blood samples, of Great Andamanese and 70 Jarawas) and 100 Nicobarese, a Mongoloid group of Nicobar Island and evaluated their relatedness with similar ethnic groups of India, Southeast Asia and Africa. Our results clearly demonstrate that the aboriginal populations of the Andaman Islands – the Great Andamanese and the Jarawas constitute an independent cluster, separating out from all other populations selected in the study. The Nicobarese show a close affinity with the Mongoloid population of Southeast Asia. The distinct genetic identity of the aboriginal populations of the Andaman Islands and other Asian and African populations deciphered by nuclear and mitochondrial DNA diversity suggest that (i) either the aboriginals of Andaman are one of the surviving descendents of settlers from an early migration out of Africa who remained in isolation in their habitat in Andaman Islands, or (ii) they are the descendents of one of the founder populations of modern humans.

 

Neighbour-Joining Phylogeny of Aboriginal Andaman and Nicobar Populations with Other World Populations Constructed Using DA Values Based on 7 Microsatellite Markers

 

Neighbour-Joining Phylogeny of Aboriginal Andaman and Nicobar Populations with Other World Populations Constructed Using DA Values Based on 15 Microsatellite Markers

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphism among Five Asian Populations by S. Harihara, et al.

Summary: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms were detected using 13 restriction enzymes on the total DNA obtained from blood samples of five Asian populations: Japanese and Ainu of northern Japan, Korean, Negrito (Aeta) of the Philippines, and Vedda of Sri Lanka. Of a total of 28 restriction-enzyme morphs detected, eight had not been reported previously. By combining the morphs, we were able to classify mtDNAs of 243 individuals into 20 mtDNA types. Phylogenetic analyses using maximum parsimony and genetic distance methods both showed that the Japanese, Ainu, and Korean populations were closely related to each other. Aeta was found to show a relatively close relationship to these three populations, confirming the conclusion from previous studies of blood markers. In contrast, Vedda was quite different from the other four populations.

Five Asian Populations of which Samples Were Analyzed in this Study

 

Phylogenetic Tree Based on Genetic Distances for Five Asian Populations

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

Minnan (Taiwan), Aetas, Nanchang (Jiangzi) and mixed (*)

Atayal (Taiwan) , Taroko (Taiwan), Aetas, Java, Malay

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

 

Aeta

(Image from The Peopling of the Philippines by Robert Lindsay)

The Aeta (pronounced as “eye-ta,”), Agta or Ayta are an indigenous people who live in scattered, isolated mountainous parts of Luzon, Philippines. They are considered to be Negritos, who are dark to very dark brown skinned and tend to have features such as a small stature, small frame, curly hair, small nose, and dark brown eyes. They are thought to be among the earliest inhabitants of the Philippines, preceding the Austronesian migrations.

The history of the Aeta continues to confound anthropologists and archaeologists. One theory suggests that the Aeta are the descendants of the original inhabitants of the Philippines, who, contrary to their sea-faring Austronesian neighbors, arrived through land bridges that linked the country with the Asian mainland about 30,000 years ago.

The life expectancy at birth of the Aeta is just 16.5 years, with only a third of children surviving to adulthood at 15 years – at which point life expectancy is still only 27.3 years. Young women reach full adult height (average 140 cm) at age 12 or 13.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Korean

Map of Korea

Koreans are believed to be descendents of Altaic-or proto-Altaic-speaking tribes, linking them with Mongolians, Tungusics, Turkics, and other Central Asians. Archaeological evidence suggest proto-Koreans were Altaic-language-speaking migrants from south-central Siberia, who populated ancient Korea in successive waves from the neolithic age to the Bronze Age.

Recent advances in the study of polymorphisms in the human Y-chromosome have produced evidence to suggest that the Korean people have a very long history as a distinct, mostly endogamous ethnic group, as male Koreans display a high frequency of Y-chromosomes belonging to Haplogroup O2b that are more or less specific to Korean populations.

Most Koreans and part-Koreans still display phenotypes suggesting Altaic origins. These features include higher cheekbones, and the Mongolian spot, a genetic predisposition for a bluish birthmark on the lower body which remains until early childhood; however, the Mongolian spot is also extremely common among non-Altaic people of Chinese, African, Native American, or East Indian ancestry.

Significant regional differences exist.Within South Korea, the most important regional difference is between the Gyeongsang region, embracing Gyeongsangbuk-do and Gyeongsangnam-do provinces in the southeast, and the Jeolla region, embracing Jeollabuk-do and Jeollanam-do provinces in the southwest. The two regions, separated by the Jiri Massif, nurture a rivalry said to reach back to the Three Kingdoms Period (57 to 668 AD) when the kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla struggled for control of the peninsula. Observers noted that interregional marriages are rare.

Genetics: Korean males display a high frequency of, Haplogroup O2b* (P49), a subclade of possibly Manchurian origin, and O3 (M122), a common Y-DNA haplogroup among East Asians in general. Haplogroup O2b* occurs approximately 14% to 33% of all Korean males, while haplogroup O3 has been found in approximately 40% of sampled Korean males. The origins of Korean Haplogroup O3 are thought to be diverse, with some of them having expanded from Manchuria with Haplogroup O2b and some of them having expanded from southern China with rice agriculturists such as the Hmong people.

Korean males also exhibit a moderate frequency of Haplogroup C3. Haplogroup C3 is thought to be the original inhabitants of the area related to the Nivkh people.

Koreans in China: Throughout history, due to the close interactions between Korea and China, some degree of population movements have always occurred between the two neighboring countries. Several ancient Korean kingdoms, like Buyeo, Goguryeo, Balhae existed in the current territory of China. There were also written records of Korean migrations in the early Qing Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, and earlier. The majority of early Korean populations in China had assimilated with Chinese society. The current Korean population in China is mainly descended from migrants who came between 1860 and 1945. In the 1860s, a series of natural disasters struck Korea, leading to disastrous famines. Along with the Qing dynasty's loosening of border controls and acceptance of external migration into Northeast China, this pushed many Koreans to migrate.