<%@LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT" CODEPAGE="65001"%> Haplogroup C (Y-DNA)

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Haplogroup C is a Y-chromosome haplogroup, defined by UEPs M130/RPS4Y711, M216, P184, P255, and P260, which are all SNP mutations. It is a sibling clade of Haplogroup F, within the more ancient grouping of Haplogroup CF. Unlike other human Y DNA clades of a similar age depth, all clades of Haplogroup CF are non-African, that is, they do not occur exclusively in Africa, unlike A and B. Haplogroup C in particular appears to be one of the Y-DNA clades which dispersed especially early towards the east, its phylogeographic distribution supports a single coastal Out-of-Africa route by way of the Indian subcontinent, which eventually led to the early settlement of modern humans in mainland Southeast Asia.

Origins: Haplogroup C seems to have come into existence shortly after SNP mutation M168 occurred for the first time, bringing the modern Haplogroup CT into existence, from which Haplogroup CF, and in turn Haplogroup C, derived. This was probably at least 60,000 years before present. Although Haplogroup C attains its highest frequencies among the indigenous populations of Mongolia, the Russian Far East, Polynesia, Australia, and at moderate frequency in the Korean Peninsula and among the Manchus, it displays high diversity among modern populations of India, and therefore it is hypothesized that Haplogroup C either originated or underwent its longest period of evolution within India or the greater South Asian coastal region. The highest diversity is observed in Southeast Asia, and its northward expansion in East Asia started approximately 40,000 years ago.

It represents a great coastal migration along Southern Asia, into Southeast Asia and Australia, and up the Asian coast. It is believed to have migrated to the Americas some 6,000-8,000 years before present, and was carried by Na-Dené speaking peoples into the northwest Pacific coast of America. Some have hypothesized that Haplogroups C and D were brought together to East Asia by a single population that became the first successful modern human colonizers of that region, but at present the distributions of Haplogroups C and D are different, with various subtypes of Haplogroup C being found at high frequency among the Australian aborigines, Polynesians, Vietnamese, Kazakhs, Mongolians, Manchurians, Koreans, and indigenous inhabitants of the Russian Far East and at moderate frequencies elsewhere throughout Asia and Oceania, including India and Southeast Asia, whereas Haplogroup D is found at high frequencies only among the Tibetans, Japanese peoples, and Andaman Islanders, and has been found neither in India nor among the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas or Oceania.

Distribution: The distribution of Haplogroup C is generally limited to populations of northern Eurasia, eastern Eurasia, Oceania, and the Americas. There is a tendency for Haplogroup C to appear as the minor component of Y-chromosome diversity among a population in which the major component is accounted for by subclades of Haplogroup K (M9). Haplogroup C also rarely co-occurs with Haplogroup D among populations of northern Eurasia.

Due to the tremendous age of this macro-haplogroup, numerous mutations have had time to accumulate on the background of a Haplogroup C-M130 Y-chromosome, and several regionally important subbranches of Haplogroup C have been identified. Haplogroup C3-M217 is probably the most important of these, as the geographic extent of its dispersal is without compare, stretching longitudinally from regional subgroups of the Eastern Europeans in Central Europe all the way to the Wayuu people in northern Colombia and northwest Venezuela, and latitudinally from the Evens and Koryaks of the Russian Far East and the Athabaskan peoples of Alaska and western Canada all the way to Turkey, Pakistan, Vietnam, and the Malay Archipelago. The highest frequencies of Haplogroup C3 are found among the populations of Mongolia and the Russian Far East, where it is generally the modal haplogroup. Haplogroup C3 is the only variety of Haplogroup C to be found among Native Americans, among whom it reaches its highest frequency in Na-Dené populations.

Other distinctive subbranches of Haplogroup C have been found to be specific to certain populations within restricted geographical territories, and even where these other branches are found, they tend to appear as a very low-frequency, minor component of the palette of Y-chromosome diversity within those territories. Haplogroup C1, an ancient but at present extremely rare lineage, is specific to the Japanese and Ryukyuan populations of Japan, among whom it occurs at a frequency of about 5%. Haplogroup C2 is found among certain local populations within Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; among the populations of some islands of Polynesia, Haplogroup C2 has become the modal haplogroup, probably due to severe founder effects and genetic drift. Haplogroup C4 is the most common haplogroup among indigenous Australians, and it has not been found outside of that continent. Haplogroup C5 has been detected with low frequency in samples from India, Nepal, Pakistan, Arabia, and northern China.

Patrilines that belong to Haplogroup C but do not belong to any of its identified subgroups are labeled as Haplogroup C*, which are found at low frequencies along the southern coast of Asia from India to Vietnam and into the interior of Yunnan province in southwestern China, as well as throughout the Philippines, Indonesia, and Micronesia. Haplogroup C* Y-chromosomes have also been detected, but only at even lower frequencies, among populations of coastal New Guinea and island Melanesia; this suggests that, within Oceania, Haplogroup C* is associated with populations of Austronesian cultural affiliation, despite the fact that the derived haplogroup C4 is predominant among the indigenous inhabitants of Australia. Several examples of Haplogroup C*, which appear to be closely related to a scatter of modern South Asian C* haplotypes, have also been found at vanishingly low frequency among the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. Some researchers have also reported finding a Haplogroup C-RPS4Y Y-chromosome in a Lebanese man with a sample size of only 31 individuals (i.e., 1/31 or approximately 3.2%), but it is not clear whether this was really a C* chromosome, in which case descent from a South Asian immigrant might be indicated, or whether it belonged to an identified subclade of Haplogroup C, such as C3, which would make it more likely that this particular Lebanese man descended from a Turco-Mongol invader.

Haplogroup C-RPS4Y711(xC1-M8, C3-M217) Y-DNA has been found in 6/35 = 17% of a sample of Yao from Bama, Guangxi in south-central China, 4/35 = 11% of a sample of Hui and 2/70 = 3% of a pair of samples of Uyghur from northwestern China, and 3/45 = 7% of a sample of Hezhe and 1/26 = 4% of a sample of Ewenki from northeastern China. Haplogroup C-RPS4Y711(xC1-M8, C2-M38, C3-M217) has been found in 48.5% (16/33) of a sample of Australian aboriginal people, 20% (12/60) of a sample of Yao, 6.1% (3/49) of a sample of Tujia, 5.9% (1/17) of a sample of Micronesians, 5.5% (3/55) of a sample of eastern Indonesians, 4.0% (1/25) of a sample of western Indonesians, 3.3% (3/91) of a sample of Sri Lankans, 3.1% (1/32) of a sample of Malays, 2.5% (10/405) of a sample of Indians, 2.2% (1/46) of a sample of Papua New Guineans, 1.7% (1/58) of a sample of Miao, and 1.5% (1/67) of a sample of Uyghurs. Haplogroup C-M216(xC1-M8, C2-M38, C3-M217, C4a-M210, C5-M356) has been found in 3.9% (3/77) of a sample of the general population of Kathmandu, Nepal.

Subgroups: This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup C subclades is based on the ISOGG 2011 tree

Famous members: One particular haplotype within Haplogroup C3 has received a great deal of attention for the possibility that it may represent direct patrilineal descent from Genghis Khan.

 

 

* Y Chromosome Diversity, Human Expansion, Drift, and Cultural Evolution by Jacques Chiaronia, et al.

Y Chromosome Haplogroup N Geographic Frequency Distribution Map

 

 

Coastal Migration

Coastal Migration is a term sometimes used in modern anthropology and genetics for the concept that, from a single origin in Africa 100-200 thousand years before present (kybp), humanity first spread eastwards to areas outside Africa along routes that were predominantly located around coastlines. Other terms, such as Southern Coastal Route, Rapid Coastal Settlement, Coastal Migration Theory and Coastal Migration Model, are also used.

Coastal migration theory in Asia and Oceania: The coastal route is primarily used to describe the initial that peopling of the Arabian peninsula, India, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Australia, coastal China and Japan, and is linked with the presence and dispersal of mtDNA haplogroup M and haplogroup N, as well as the specific distribution patterns of Y-DNA haplogroup C and haplogroup D, in these regions. The theory proposes that humans, likely similar to the Negritos or Proto-Australoids of modern times, arrived in the Arabian peninsula from Africa, then on the southern coastal regions of the Indian mainland, followed by spread to the Andaman Islands and modern-day Indonesia, and thence branching southwards to Australia and northwards towards Japan. National Geographic's Genographic Project uses the term 'Coastal Clan' to describe the initial human groups of Y-DNA haplogroup C who expanded eastwards out from Africa along the coastal route around 50 kybp.

Roger Blench discusses the theory in relation to language families.

 

 

* Global Distribution of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup C Reveals the Prehistoric Migration Routes of African Exodus and Early Settlement in East Asia by Zhong H, et al.

Abstract: The regional distribution of an ancient Y-chromosome haplogroup C-M130 (Hg C) in Asia provides an ideal tool of dissecting prehistoric migration events. We identified 465 Hg C individuals out of 4284 males from 140 East and Southeast Asian populations. We genotyped these Hg C individuals using 12 Y-chromosome biallelic markers and 8 commonly used Y-short tandem repeats (Y-STRs), and performed phylogeographic analysis in combination with the published data. The results show that most of the Hg C subhaplogroups have distinct geographical distribution and have undergone long-time isolation, although Hg C individuals are distributed widely across Eurasia. Furthermore, a general south-to-north and east-to-west cline of Y-STR diversity is observed with the highest diversity in Southeast Asia. The phylogeographic distribution pattern of Hg C supports a single coastal 'Out-of-Africa' route by way of the Indian subcontinent, which eventually led to the early settlement of modern humans in mainland Southeast Asia. The northward expansion of Hg C in East Asia started approximately 40 thousand of years ago (KYA) along the coastline of mainland China and reached Siberia approximately 15 KYA and finally made its way to the Americas.

 

 

* Extended Y-Chromosome Investigation Suggests Post-Glacial Migrations of Modern Humans into East Asia Via the Northern Route by Hua Zhong, et al.

Abstract: Genetic diversity data, from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA as well as recent genome-wide autosomal SNPs, suggested that mainland Southeast Asia was the major geographic source of East Asian populations. However, these studies also detected Central-South Asia- and/or West Eurasia-related genetic components in East Asia, implying either recent population admixture or ancient migrations via the proposed northern route. To trace the time period and geographic source of these Central-South Asia- and West Eurasia-related genetic components, we sampled 3,826 males (116 populations from China and one population from South Korea) and performed high-resolution genotyping according to the well-resolved Y-chromosome phylogeny. Our data, in combination with the published East Asian Y-haplogroup data, show that there are four dominant haplogroups (accounting for 92.87% of the East Asian Y chromosomes), O-M175, D-M174, C-M130 (not including C5-M356) and N-M231, in both southern and northern East Asian populations, which is consistent with the proposed southern route of modern human origin in East Asia. However, there are other haplogroups (6.79% in total) (E-SRY4064, C5-M356, G-M201, H-M69, I-M170, J-P209, L-M20, Q-M242, R-M207 and T-M70) detected primarily in northern East Asian populations, and were identified as Central-South Asian and/or West Eurasian origin based on the phylogeographic analysis. In particular, evidence of geographic distribution and Y-STR diversity indicate that haplogroup Q-M242 (the ancestral haplogroup of the native American-specific haplogroup Q1a3a-M3) and R-M207 probably migrated into East Asia via the northern route. The age estimation of Y-STR variation within haplogroups suggests the existence of post-Glacial (∼18 thousand years ago, kya) migrations via the northern route as well as recent (∼3 kya) population admixture. We propose that although the Paleolithic migrations via the southern route played a major role in modern human settlement in East Asia, there are ancient contributions, though limited, from western Eurasia which partly explain the genetic divergence between current southern and northern East Asian populations.

 

 

* Melanesian and Asian Origins of Polynesians: MtDNA and Y Chromosome Gradients Across the Pacific by Manfred Kayser, et al.

Frequency Distribution of NRY Haplogroups Found in Polynesia with a Genetic Origin in Melanesia

(C-M208, C-M38)

 

Frequency Distribution of NRY Haplogroups Found in Polynesia with a Genetic Origin in Asia

(C-RPS4Y)

 

 

* The Human Genetic History of East Asia: Review Weaving a Complex Tapestry by Mark Stoneking, et al.

Excerpt: Similarly, NRY haplogroups C-M130 and D-M174 have been suggested to support an early southern dispersal route. C-M130 is found sporadically in India and southeast Asia, and reaches its highest frequencies in eastern Indonesia and some Filipino Negrito groups (F. Delfin, M. Stoneking, and M.C.A. DeUngria, unpublished data). C-M130 also gave rise to two other NRY haplogroups, C-M38 and C-M217, which are at their highest frequencies in Oceania and northeastern Asia, respectively.

 

Map Depicting the Distribution of Major NRY Haplogroups in East Asia

Abbreviations and references are: sCh, southern China; nCh, northern China; Tib, Tibet; Mon, Mongolia; wEv, western Evens; cEv, central Evens; eEv, eastern Evens; STE, Stony Tunguska Evenk; Ien, Iengra; Nyu, Nyukzha; YSE, Yakutspeaking Evenks; Yak, Yakuts; Yuk, Yukaghirs; Krk, Koryaks; Tuv, Tuvans; Kor, Korea; Jap, Japan; Tai, Taiwan (aborigine); Vie, Vietnam; Tha, Thailand; Mal, Malaysia; Sum, Sumatra; Jav, Java; Bor, Borneo; Ten, Tengarras; Mol, Moluccas; Phi, Philippines.

 

 

* 臺灣原住民族的Y 染色體多樣性與華南史前文化的關連性 by 陳叔倬

C* M130: Taiwanese aborigines 0%

 

 

* Y-DNA Haplogroups by Populations of East and Southeast Asia by wikipedia.org

C: Taiwan (Han) 6.3%, Taiwanese aborigines 0.4%

* Haplotype Frequencies of Nine Y-Chromosome STR Loci in the Taiwanese Han Population by Tsai LC, et al.
* A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania by Cristian Capelli, et al.

 

 

* Partial Duplication at AZFc on the Y Chromosome Is a Risk Factor for Impaired Spermatogenesis in Han Chinese in Taiwan by Yi-Wen Lin, et al.

The Y Chromosome Haplogroups of Han Taiwanese

M216 - C: Han Taiwanese 5.9%

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

NRY Haplogroup Distribution in Han Populations

C* M130: Fujian 2.7%

Population n C* D/E D1 F* K* O3* O3d O3e O1* O1b O2a* O2a1 Q1 P*
    M130 YAP M15 M89 M9 M122 M7 M134 M119 M110 M95 M88 M120 M45
Northern Han
                              
60
7
5
  
6
10
11
  
11
5
   1  
3
1
Hebei
14
      
2
1
3
  
7
1
          
Henan
50
2
    
2
11
16
  
10
4
      
4
1
Liaoning
48
1
1
  
11
8
13
  
9
2
  
1
  
2
  
60
12
3
  
4
8
13
  
16
1
  
1
  
2
  
85
14
1
2
3
12
36
  
12
    
1
  
4
  
Shandong 2
100
4
    
11
13
32
  
30
6
  
1
  
3
  
Shannxi 1
63
2
3
  
4
11
16
  
22
1
  
1
  
1
2
Shannxi 2
27
      
3
9
5
  
8
1
      
1
  
Xinjiang
51
2
1
  
3
9
15
  
15
2
      
2
2
Southern Han
                              
22
3
      
4
6
  
4
4
      
1
  
148
4
1
  
3
21
80
6
24
3
1
4
  
1
  
Guangdong
64
3
  
1
  
8
15
  
19
5
  
7
5
1
  
Guangxi
26
2
      
4
4
  
5
4
  
2
5
    
Hubei
18
1
      
2
5
1
6
3
          
Hunan
15
        
2
5
  
4
2
  
2
      
Jiangsu
100
6
2
  
3
19
25
2
19
18
  
4
  
2
  
Jiangxi
21
1
1
  
2
4
4
  
5
3
  
1
      
Shanghai
55
4
2
    
9
14
1
9
14
      
2
  
Sichuan
63
3
  
1
  
10
16
2
18
5
  
6
2
    
27
3
    
1
1
5
  
15
1
  
1
      
Yunnan 2
66
4
  
2
2
15
25
4
10
    
2
  
2
  
106
10
      
6
26
  
28
29
  
5
  
2
  

 

 

* Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times by Yali Xue, et al.

Populations Sampled

 

 

 

Haplogroup C3 (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup C3 (M217, P44) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup mainly found in indigenous Siberians, Kazakhs and Mongolians. Haplogroup C3 is the most widespread and frequently occurring branch of the greater Haplogroup C (M130). One particular haplotype within Haplogroup C3 has received a great deal of attention for the possibility that it may represent direct patrilineal descent from Genghis Khan.

Genetic Origin: Haplogroup C3 is believed to have originated approximately 20,000 years before present in eastern or central Asia. Its closest phylogenetic relatives are found in the general vicinity of South Asia, East Asia, or Oceania. First, Haplogroup C1 has a relictual distribution in Japan, which suggests an origin in the Jōmon people of the prehistoric Japanese Archipelago. Second, Haplogroup C2 appears to have expanded throughout East Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia after the hybridization of Austronesian colonists, ultimately from the Asian mainland, with pre-existing Melanesians. Third, Haplogroup C4 is the predominant male lineage among the indigenous Australians. Finally, Haplogroup C5 is found at a low frequency in South Asia, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia. Haplogroup C* Y-chromosomes, which do not belong to any of the five identified subclades of Haplogroup C, are found at low frequency in Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania.

Distribution: Haplogroup C3 is the modal haplogroup among Mongolians and most indigenous populations of the Russian Far East, such as the Northern Tungusic peoples, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Nivkhs. The subclade C3b-P39 is quite common among males of the indigenous North American peoples whose languages belong to the Na-Dené phylum. The frequency of Haplogroup C3 tends to be negatively correlated with distance from Mongolia and the Russian Far East, but it still comprises more than ten percent of the total Y-chromosome diversity among the Manchus, Koreans, Ainu, and some Turkic peoples of Central Asia although in a genetic study in 2004, haplogroup C3 was more frequent among Koreans than previously thought (16.5%). Among the Kazakhs, who are a Turkic people of Kazakhstan and neighboring areas in northern Central Asia, Haplogroup C3 once again emerges as the most common haplogroup. Beyond this range of high-to-moderate frequency, which contains mainly the northeast quadrant of Eurasia and the northwest quadrant of North America, Haplogroup C3 continues to be found at low frequencies, and it has even been found as far afield as Northwest Europe, Turkey, Pakistan, Nepal and adjacent regions of India, Vietnam, the Malay Archipelago, and the Wayuu people of South America. Within Japan, haplogroup C3 has been found almost exclusively among Ainus (2/16 = 12.5% or 1/4 = 25%) and among Japanese of the Kyūshū region (4/53 = 7.5%). The frequency of Haplogroup C3 in samples of Han Chinese from various areas has ranged from 0% (0/27 Han from Guangxi) to 22.5% (9/40 Han from Liaoning), with the frequency of this haplogroup in several studies' pools of all Han Chinese samples ranging between 6.0% and 12.0%.

Geographical Origin: The extremely broad distribution of Haplogroup C3 Y-chromosomes, coupled with the fact that the ancestral paragroup C* is not found among any of the modern Siberian or North American populations among whom Haplogroup C3 predominates, makes the determination of the geographical origin of the defining M217 mutation exceedingly difficult. The presence of Haplogroup C3 at a low frequency but relatively high diversity throughout East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia makes that region one likely source. In addition, the C3 haplotypes found with high frequency among North Asian populations appear to belong to a different genealogical branch from the C3 haplotypes found with low frequency among East and Southeast Asians, which suggests that the marginal presence of C3 among modern East and Southeast Asian populations may not be due to recent admixture from Northeast or Central Asia.

Subgroups: The subclades of Haplogroup C3 with their defining mutation(s), according to the 2008 ISOGG tree:

 

* Genetic Origins of the Ainu Inferred from Combined DNA Analyses of Maternal and Paternal Lineages by Atsushi Tajima, et al.

Abstract: The Ainu, a minority ethnic group from the northernmost island of Japan, was investigated for DNA polymorphisms both from maternal (mitochondrial DNA) and paternal (Y chromosome) lineages extensively. Other Asian populations inhabiting North, East, and Southeast Asia were also examined for detailed phylogeographic analyses at the mtDNA sequence type as well as Y-haplogroup levels. The maternal and paternal gene pools of the Ainu contained 25 mtDNA sequence types and three Y-haplogroups, respectively. Eleven of the 25 mtDNA sequence types were unique to the Ainu and accounted for over 50% of the population, whereas 14 were widely distributed among other Asian populations. Of the 14 shared types, the most frequently shared type was found in common among the Ainu, Nivkhi in northern Sakhalin, and Koryaks in the Kamchatka Peninsula. Moreover, analysis of genetic distances calculated from the mtDNA data revealed that the Ainu seemed to be related to both the Nivkhi and other Japanese populations (such as mainland Japanese and Okinawans) at the population level. On the paternal side, the vast majority (87.5%) of the Ainu exhibited the Asian-specific YAP+ lineages (Y-haplogroups D-M55* and D-M125), which were distributed only in the Japanese Archipelago in this analysis. On the other hand, the Ainu exhibited no other Y-haplogroups (C-M8, O-M175*, and O-M122*) common in mainland Japanese and Okinawans. It is noteworthy that the rest of the Ainu gene pool was occupied by the paternal lineage (Y-haplogroup C-M217*) from North Asia including Sakhalin. Thus, the present findings suggest that the Ainu retain a certain degree of their own genetic uniqueness, while having higher genetic affinities with other regional populations in Japan and the Nivkhi among Asian populations.

 

 

* Genetic Evidence for the Mongolian Ancestry of Kalmyks by Ivan Nasidze, et al.

Y-Chromosome Haplogroup Frequencies in Kalmykians and Additional Populations from Eastern Europe and Central and East Asia (Wells et al., 2002)1

 

 

* The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity by R. Spencer Wells, et al.

Geographic Distribution of Y-Chromosome Haplotypes in Selected Eurasian Populations

(M130: C)

___________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Descent from Genghis Khan

Portrait of Genghis Khan

Descent from Genghis Khan (Mongolian: Алтан ураг, meaning 'Golden lineage' or Tore) is traceable primarily in Central Asia. His four sons and other immediate descendants are famous by names and by deeds. Later Asian potentates attempted to claim descent from the House of Borjigin even on flimsy grounds. In the 14th century, valid sources (heavily dependent on Rashid al-Din and other Muslim historians) all but dried up. With the recent popularity of genealogical DNA testing, a wider circle of people started to claim descent from Genghis Khan.

The Paternity of Jochi: The first and foremost problem is the paternity of Genghis's eldest son, Jochi, whose recorded progeny is far more copious than that of Ögedei, Chagatai, and Tolui, taken together. The name of Jochi is translated as "(Unexpected) Guest". The Secret History of the Mongols relates that the boy was sent to Genghis by Chilger, who had kidnapped and raped his first wife, keeping her in captivity for about a year. According to the Secret History, the brothers of Jochi expressed doubts as to his paternity, but these were denied by Genghis himself.

Modern historians speculate that Jochi's disputed paternity was the reason for his eventual estrangement from his father and for the fact that his descendants never succeeded to the imperial throne. On the other hand, Genghis always treated Jochi as his first son, while the failure of the Jochid succession may be explained by Jochi's premature death (which may have excluded his posterity from succession).

Another important consideration is that Genghis's descendants intermarried frequently. For instance, the Jochids took wives from the Ilkhan dynasty of Persia, whose progenitor was Hulagu Khan. As a consequence, it is likely that many Jochids had other sons of Genghis Khan among their matrilineal ancestors.

Asian Dynasties: Among the Asian dynasties descended from Genghis Khan were the Yuan Dynasty of China, the Ilkhanids of Persia, the Jochids of the Golden Horde, the Shaybanids of Siberia, and the Astrakhanids of Central Asia. As a rule, the Genghisid descent was crucial in Tatar politics. For instance, Mamai had to exercise his authority through a succession of puppet khans but could not assume the title of khan himself because he was not of the Genghisid lineage.

Timur Lenk, the founder of the Timurid Dynasty, claimed to be a descendant from Genghis Khan; however, this conclusion is based on false ground. There is no clear evidence for his own descent; he associated himself with the family of Chagatai Khan through marriage. He also never assumed the title "Khan" for himself, but employed two members of the Chagatai clan as formal heads of state. The Mughal royal family of the Indian subcontinent descended from Timur through Babur.

The ruling Wang Clan of the Korean Goryeo Dynasty became matrilineal descendants of the Genghisids through the marriage between King Chungnyeol and a daughter of Kublai Khan. All subsequent rulers of Korea for next 80 years, through King Gongmin were thus descended from Genghis Khan.

At a later period, Tatar potentates of Genghisid stock included the khans of Qazan and Qasim (notably a Russian tsar, Simeon Bekbulatovich) and the Giray dynasty, which ruled the Khanate of Crimea until 1783.

As the Russian Empire annexed Turkic polities, their Genghisid rulers frequently entered the Russian service. For instance, Kuchum's descendants became Russified as the Tsarevichs of Siberia. Descendants of Ablai Khan assumed in Russia the name of Princes Valikhanov, while the sons of one Kalmyk khan became known as Princes Dondukov. All these families asserted their Genghisid lineage. The only extant family of this group is the House of Giray, whose members left Soviet Russia for the United States and United Kingdom.

Eastern European Gateways: After the Mongol invasion of Russia, the Rurikid rulers of Russian principalities were eager to obtain political advantages for themselves and their countries by marrying into the House of Genghis. Alexander Nevsky was adopted by Batu Khan as his son. Alexander's grandson Yury of Moscow married a sister of Uzbeg Khan. However, they had no progeny. On the other hand, petty Mongol princelings of Genghisid stock sometimes settled in Russia. For instance, Berke's nephew adopted the Christian name Peter and founded St. Peter's Monastery in Rostov, where his descendants were long prominent as boyars.

The issue of three Russian-Mongol marriages may be traced down to the present. The most famous was the marriage of St. Fyodor the Black, later proclaimed a patron saint of Yaroslavl, to a daughter of the Mongol khan Mengu-Timur. Fyodor's relations with the khan were idyllic: he spent more time in the Horde (where he was given extensive possessions) than in his capital. Male-line descendants of Fyodor's marriage to the Tatar princess include all the later rulers of Yaroslavl and two dozens princely families (such as the Shakhovskoy, Lvov, or Prozorovsky, among others), which passed Genghis genes to other aristocratic families of Russia.

Prince Gleb of Beloozero, a grandson of Konstantin of Russia, was another Rurikid prince influential at the Mongol court. Gleb married the only daughter of Khan Sartaq. From this marriage descends the House of Belozersk, whose scions include Princes Ukhtomsky and Beloselsky-Belozersky.

The most problematic is the marriage of Narimont, the second son of Gediminas of Lithuania, to Toqta's daughter. The earliest source for this marriage is the "Jagiellonian genealogy", compiled in the 18th-century from Ruthenian chronicles by one Joannes Werner. While the marriage is not utterly impossible (Narimont spent several years in the Horde), there are no extant chronicles which mention Narimont's wife. This highly uncertain gateway derives particular interest from the fact that the Galitzine, Khovansky and Kurakin princely families are Narimont's agnatic descendants.

Qing China: During the initial building of the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan had the tradition of diplomatic marriages with Mongols to earn their support. Qing rulers would make Mongol ladies empresses and major concubines. As the Khorchin were the strongest banner, the Manchus were anxious to make alliances from the Borjigit. These marriages produced two empresses and three dowager empresses of the Qing Dynasty, from which Xiaozhuang subsequently became a notable grand empress dowager. Hence, it is not surprising to note that from Nurhaci to the Shunzhi Emperor, all the empresses and major concubines were Mongols.

Empress Xiaoduan (Jere) was made empress in 1636, Empress of Emperor Hung Taiji. Daughter of Prince Manjusri. Known as a benevolent empress and the most virtuous of all. Made "Motherly Empress Dowager Empress" (Mu Hou Huang Tai Hou) in 1643 after the death Of Emperor Hung Taiji. She died in 1649 (Shunzhi's 6th year of rule).

Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang (Bumbutai) was historically considered the mother of Qing Dynasty. She was a concubine of Huang Taiji. Daughter of Prince Jaisang and niece of Empress Xiaoduan. Made the "Enlightened Mother Dowager Empress" (Sheng Mu Huang Tai Hou) in 1643 after the death of Emperor Hung Taiji. She died in 1688 having helped Shunzhi Emperor, her son, run the country till his death and Kangxi Emperor, her grandson, for 25 years of his reign. This makes all Qing Dynasty emperors who ruled China proper descendants of Genghis Khan. Xiaozhuang was an excellent politician who did not like to interfere in politics, unlike the notorious Empress Dowager Cixi. However, when the conditions required, she rendered her efforts.

The title of King of Liang was granted to a direct descendant of Kublai Khan and had its state in modern day Kaifeng. The descendants of this family had taken part in both Ming and Qing Civil Imperial Examinations and have been influential in providing Confucian scholars.

DNA evidence - The Ian Ashworth Effect: Zerjal et al. [2003] identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the men in the world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago (thus several generations prior to the birth of Genghis). Such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by genetic drift, and must therefore be the result of selection. The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan and his close male relatives, and that it has spread through social selection. Both due to the power that Khan and his direct descendants held and a society which allowed one man to have many children through having multiple wives and widespread rape in conquered cities.

According to Family Tree DNA, Genghis Khan is believed to have belonged to Haplogroup C3.

The 25 Marker Y-DNA Profile of Genghis Khan released by Family Tree DNA is:

385a 385b 388 389i 389ii 390 391 392 393 394 426 437 439 447 448 449 454 455 458 459a 459b 464a 464b
12 13 14 13 29 25 10 11 13 16 11 14 10 26 22 27 12 11 18 8 8 11 11

 

 

* The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols by Tatiana Zerjal, et al

Abstract: We have identified a Y-chromosomal lineage with several unusual features. It was found in 16 populations throughout a large region of Asia, stretching from the Pacific to the Caspian Sea, and was present at high frequency: ∼8% of the men in this region carry it, and it thus makes up ∼0.5% of the world total. The pattern of variation within the lineage suggested that it originated in Mongolia ∼1,000 years ago. Such a rapid spread cannot have occurred by chance; it must have been a result of selection. The lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and we therefore propose that it has spread by a novel form of social selection resulting from their behavior.

 

Geographical Distribution of Star-Cluster Chromosomes

Populations are shown as circles with an area proportional to sample size; star-cluster chromosomes are indicated by green sectors. The shaded area represents the extent of Genghis Khan’s empire at the time of his death (Morgan 1986).

 

 

Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the Yuan Dynasty

 

 

Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan Dynasty (元朝), or Great Yuan Empire (大元帝國) was a Mongol dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an imperial dynasty of China. In Chinese history, the Yuan Dynasty followed the Song Dynasty and preceded the Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (太祖). Besides Emperor of China, Kublai Khan had also claimed the title of Great Khan, i.e. supremacy over the other Mongol khanates (Chagatai Khanate, Golden Horde, Ilkhanate); however this claim was only truly recognized by the Il-Khanids, who were nevertheless essentially self-governing. Although later emperors of the Yuan Dynasty were recognized by the three virtually independent western khanates as their nominal suzerains, they each continued their own separate developments. The Yuan is sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan, as the Mongol Emperors of the Yuan held the title of Great Khan of all Mongol Khanates.

 

 

Mongols

The name Mongol (蒙古族) specifies one or several ethnic groups, now mainly located in modern Mongolia, China, and in Russia with China having the majority Mongol population. There are in total approximately 11 million people of Mongol descent populating these countries.

Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongol peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, the fact that Chinese histories trace certain Turkic tribes from the Xiongnu complicates the issue. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace all the subsequent Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (mainly Xianbei peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan).

Physical Characteristics: In terms of physical characteristics, Mongols exhibit a variety of features, with typical Mongoloid features being most noticeable. Epicanthic folds of the eyes exist on almost all Mongols along with high and pronounced cheekbones. The vast majority of Mongols have black hair and brown eyes, although a certain number of Mongols, particularly in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair. This trend is more prevalent into the Uyghur population, some Mongols today have Caucasoid features likely due to historical intermixing with Iranian and Tocharian peoples.

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Descent from Giocangga

Portrait of Nurhaci, first Qing emperor of China, grandson of Giocangga

Giocangga (覺昌安) (died 1582) was the grandfather of Nurhaci, the man who was to unify the Jurchen peoples and begin building what later became the Manchu state. Both he and his son Taksi went to the aid of Nurhaci's uncle Atai (阿台) whose city was being besieged by a rival Jurchen chieftain Nikan Wailan, who promised the governance of the city to whoever would kill Atai. One of Atai's underlings rebelled and murdered him. Both Giocangga and Taksi were originally under the command of the Ming general Li Chengliang who was siding with Nikan Wailan. In the mist of battle Li thought they had mutinied as they were left in the battlefield. They were killed in the aftermath by Nikan Wailan.

In 2005, a study led by a researcher at the British Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute suggested that Giocangga might be the ancestor of over 1.5 million people, mostly in northeastern China and Mongolia. This was attributed to Giocangga's and his descendants' many wives and concubines. It was estimated that the average man in the time of Giocangga would have only 20 offspring as of 2005.

 

 

* Recent Spread of a Y-Chromosomal Lineage in Northern China and Mongolia by Yali Xue, et al.

Abstract: We have identified a Y-chromosomal lineage that is unusually frequent in northeastern China and Mongolia, in which a haplotype cluster defined by 15 Y short tandem repeats was carried by ~3.3% of the males sampled from East Asia. The most recent common ancestor of this lineage lived 590 ± 340 years ago (mean ± SD), and it was detected in Mongolians and six Chinese minority populations (Xibe, Inner Mongolians, Ewenki, Oroqen, Manchu, and Hezhe). We suggest that the lineage was spread by Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) nobility, who were a privileged elite sharing patrilineal descent from Giocangga (died 1582), the grandfather of Manchu leader Nurhaci, and whose documented members formed ~0.4% of the minority population by the end of the dynasty.

Excerpt: The 1,003 males were tested with 45 binary markers representing the known Y-chromosomal SNP variation in this part of the world (Zerjal et al. 2003; results not shown), and all Manchu haplotype chromosomes were found to carry the derived allele of M48 and, thus, fall into haplogroup C3c. A median-joining network (Bandelt et al. 1999) of this haplogroup showed that closely related chromosomes that might share a common origin were also present, forming a “Manchu cluster”. However, it was not obvious where the boundaries of this cluster lay—chromosomes zero, one, two, three, four, and five steps away from the center were present 27, 7, 3, 5, 3, and 3 times, respectively, showing a decrease in frequency but not a discontinuity. We wished to define the cluster so that we could then map its geographical distribution and estimate its time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA), ...

 

Geographical Distribution of Manchu Cluster Chromosomes

 

 

Taiwan under Qing Dynasty Rule

Manchu writing at the Taiwan Confucian Temple. Inscription on the Dismounting stele reads: "Civil and military officials, soldiers and citizens, all dismount from their horses here"

The Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan from 1683 to 1895. The Qing court sent an army led by general Shi Lang and annexed Taiwan in 1683.

History: Qing Emperor Kangxi annexed Taiwan because he wanted to remove the remaining resistance forces against the Qing Dynasty. However, Qing did not want to develop Taiwan over aggressively as this may encourage any potential resistance force to build a base in Taiwan. Accordingly, the early Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan passively. Taiwan was governed as part of Fujian province at the time, only becoming a separate province later.

There were more than a hundred rebellions during the early Qing Dynasty reign. The frequency of rebellions, riots, and civil strife in Qing Dynasty Taiwan is evoked by the common saying "every three years an uprising; every five years a rebellion" (三年一反、五年一亂).

Qing's Policy on Taiwan: Qing had two main policies relating to the governance of Taiwan. The first policy was to restrict the qualification and number of migrants who were allowed to cross the Taiwan strait and settle in Taiwan. This was to prevent a rapid growth in population. The other policy was to restrict Han Chinese from entering the mountain area which was mainly settled by Indigenous Taiwanese peoples. This policy was to prevent conflict between the two groups of settlers.

Despite the restrictions, the population of Han Chinese in Taiwan grew rapidly from 100,000 to 2,500,000, while the population of Taiwanese Aborigines shrank.

The restrictions on mainland Chinese residents migrating to Taiwan stipulated that no family members could accompany the migrant. Therefore, most migrants were mostly single men or married men with wives remaining on mainland China. Most early male migrants to Taiwan would choose to marry the indigenous women. Accordingly, there was a saying which stated that "there were Tangshan (Chinese) men, but no Tangshan women" (有唐山公無唐山媽).

The Han people frequently occupied the indigenous land or conducted illegal business with the indigenous peoples, so conflicts often happened. During that time, the Qing government was not interested in managing this matter. It simply drew the borders and closed up the mountain area so they could segregate the two groups. It also implemented a policy which assumed that the indigenous peoples would understand the law as much as the Han Chinese, so when conflicts arose the indigenous peoples tended to be judged unfairly. Accordingly, indigenous land were often taken through both legal and illegal methods, sometimes the Han Chinese even used inter-marriage as an excuse to occupy land. Many people crossed the maintain borders to farm and to conduct business, and conflicts frequently arose.

Development: The Han people occupied most of the plains and developed good agricultural systems and prosperous commence, and consequently transformed the plains of Taiwan into a Han-like society.

Taiwan had a strong agricultural sector in the economy, while the coastal provinces of mainland China had a strong handcrafting sector, the trade between the two regions prospered and many cities in Taiwan such as Tainan, Lukang and Taipei became important trading ports.

During 1884-1885, the Sino-French War affected Taiwan. The Qing government then realised the strategic importance of Taiwan in relation to trade and geographical location and therefore began to try to rapidly develop Taiwan. In 1885, Taiwan became Taiwan Province, and Liu Mingchuan was appointed as the governor. He increased the administrative regions in Taiwan to tighten control and to reduce crime. He implemented land reform and simplified land management. As a result of the land reform, the taxation received by the government increased by more than threefold. He also developed the mountain area to promote harmony between the Han Chinese and the Indigenous Taiwanese peoples.

However, modernisation of Taiwan was his main achievement. He encouraged the use of machineries and built military defence infrastructure. He also improved the road and rail systems. In 1887, he started building the first Chinese-built railway (completed in 1893). In 1888, he opened the first post office in Taiwan (see Chunghwa Post), which was also the first in China. Taiwan was then considered the most developed province in China.

However, soon after his reforms Taiwan was ceded to Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.

Reaction of Taiwan to the Treaty of Shimonoseki: In an attempt to prevent Japanese rule, an independent democratic Republic of Formosa was declared. This republic was short-lived as the Japanese quickly suppressed opposition.

 

 

Portrait of Kanxi Emperor

 

 

Manchus

The Manchu people (滿族) are a Tungusic people who originated in Manchuria (today's northeastern China) and one of the 56 ethnic groups of People's Republic of China. During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels (such as general Wu Sangui), they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which established a republican government in its place.

For centuries, the Manchu ethnicity has acculturated with the majority Han ethnicity of China. Most Manchu today speak Standard Chinese, while the Manchu language is only spoken by elderly people in remote northeastern China and a few scholars; there are around ten thousand speakers of Xibe, a closely-related language spoken in the Ili region of Xinjiang. In recent years, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in Manchu culture among both ethnic Manchus and Han. The number of Chinese today with some Manchu ancestry is quite large—with 10.68 million members (in China), Manchu is the 3rd largest ethnic group in China after the Han and the Zhuang. The adoption of favorable policies towards ethnic minorities (such as preferential university admission, government employment opportunities and exemption from the one child policy) has encouraged some people with mixed Han and Manchu ancestry to re-identify themselves as Manchu.

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Epicanthic Fold

An epicanthic fold, epicanthal fold, or epicanthus is a skin fold of the upper eyelid (from the nose to the inner side of the eyebrow) covering the inner corner (medial canthus) of the eye. The trait arises because the eyelid muscles are weaker or lower compared with people who do not have this epicanthic fold, resulting in a lower fold in the eyelid, when the eyes are open. The fold gives the eyes of Asians a characteristic shape which is narrower and almond-like in comparison to most Westerners, whose eyes appear rounder.

One hypothesis as to why epicanthic folds came about involves the climates in which populations expressing them arose. Sunlight reflects more intensely off light colored surfaces, such as those prevalent in snowy regions or savannahs and deserts. The theory is that an epicanthic fold in such an environment would protect the eyes from extra UV radiation. The trait may also be useful against strong winds and cold weather such as the ones on the Central Asian steppes. For instance the country of Mongolia is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as -30°C (-22°F). The country is also subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. The capital Ulaanbaatar has the lowest average temperature of any national capital in the world. Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls.

Population Distribution: The epicanthic fold occurs commonly in people of Central Asian, East Asian and Southeast Asian descent as a result of adaptive significance, such as the Mongols, Hazaras, Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, Vietnamese, Kazakhs and some South and Southeast Asians like Burmese, Filipinos, Cambodians, Malays, Thais, Bhutanese, Northern Bangladeshis, Northern Nepalis, Tibetans, Ladakhis and others. It also occurs in Afro-Asians, Khoisans (Capoids) in Africa and Madagascar, and certain groups from southern Sudan such as the Dinka and the Nuer. Epicanthic folds can also be found inherited among some Oceanic peoples including Tongans, Samoans, Micronesians, and Hawaiians. Many Inuits and some Native Americans may have it as well.

Epicanthic folds are also found in a minority of Europeans having no obvious Asian background, especially in eastern Europe and across northern Europe in areas such as Scandinavia and Poland , as well as within Ireland and Britain. One of the existing accounts suggests that Europeans who possess the fold also have less prominent brow ridges

The epicanthic fold occurs more frequently among persons of East Asian descent than among southeast Asians or south Asians.

Epicanthoplasty sometimes referred to as "Westernization" is a type of eye surgery to remove the presence of epicanthal folds. It is considered to be a challenging procedure by some surgeons because the epicanthal folds overlay the lacrimal canaliculi (tear drainage canals). In Asian ethnicities, the presence of an epicanthic fold is associated with a less prominent upper eyelid crease, commonly termed "single eyelids" as opposed to "double eyelids". The two features are distinct; a person may have both epicanthal fold and upper eyelid crease, one and not the other, or neither

 

 

Khoisan

Khoisan (also spelled Khoesaan, Khoesan or Khoe-San) is a unifying name for two ethnic groups of Southern Africa, who share physical and putative linguistic characteristics distinct from the Bantu majority of the region. Culturally, the Khoisan are divided into the foraging San and the pastoral Khoi. Other terms used to describe the Khoisan people include Bushmen, referring to the San, and Hottentot, referring to the Khoi or Khoe.

Physically the Khoisan, with their short frames (149–163 cm/4'9-5'4;), copper brown skin, tightly coiled "peppercorn" hair, high cheekbones, and epicanthic eye folds are quite distinct from the darker-skinned peoples who constitute the majority of Africa's population, though both population are usually dolichocephalic (Huxley, 1870). They have moderately long legs and longer abdominal muscles, traits that sharply distinguish them from surrounding Pygmy and Bantu populations having muscles with short bellies and long tendons (Coon 1965). In past ethnography, the Khoisan have been referred to as the Capoid race because they can be visually distinguished from the Congoid Africans of Bantu origin.

Neoteny: Dr. John Baker noted the following neotenous traits in the "Bushman" or "Sanid" of Africa: small genitalia, short height, hairlessness, wide-set eyes and broadened-shortened faces.

Genetic Studies: In the 1990s, genomic studies of different peoples around the world found that the Y chromosome of Khoisan men (using samples drawn from several San tribes) share certain patterns of polymorphisms that are distinct from the genomes of all other populations. As the Y chromosome is highly conserved from generation to generation, this type of DNA testing is used by geneticists to determine when different subgroups separated from one another and hence their last common ancestry. The authors of these studies suggested that the Khoisan may have been one of the first populations to differentiate from the most recent common paternal ancestor of all extant humans, the so-called Y-chromosomal Adam by patrilineal descent, estimated to have lived 60,000 to 90,000 years ago. The authors also note that their results should be interpreted as only finding that the Khoisan "preserve ancient lineages", and not that they "stopped evolving" or are an "ancient group", since subsequent changes in their population are in parallel and similar to those of all other human populations.

Various Y-chromosome studies since confirmed that the Khoisan (or Khoe-San) carry some of the most divergent (oldest) Y-chromosome haplogroups. These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.