HAKKA

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

 

The Hakka people (Hakka language: Hak-kâ; Mandarin Chinese: Kèjiā) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people based in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian in China and speaking the Hakka language. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago, but the origins of the Hakkas is still a contested issue. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world. The Hakkas have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

 

Hakkas in Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15-20% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the second largest ethnic group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung.

Many people in Taiwan are of mixed Hoklo, Hakka, and Formosan aboriginal heritage. Approximately half of the population of Hakka in Taiwan also speak Taiwanese, and it is highly likely that many Taiwanese-speaking households were descendants of Hakka families in Taiwan who lost their language a few generations back.

* 行政院客家委員會全球資訊網 (Council for Hakka Affairs, Executive Yuan)

 

美濃客家文物館

Meinong Township (美濃鎮) is a famous Hakka urban township in Kaohsiung County, Taiwan. The area has grown tobacco since 1630 and is renowned nationwide for its oil paper umbrellas.

 

 

Migrations and Group Identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).

Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty. Some of these migrants did not want to reveal where they were from as, under Chinese Laws, a crime of treason committed by one person is punishable by death upon the clan of that person up to nine generations. As the locals did not know where the migrants were from, they referred to them as 'guest families'.

During the reign of Emperor Qing Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地, "original land") of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl River Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different people speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakkas.

The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of the area are the Beijing or Hebei people.

The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.

Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakkas are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous people, and between the Punti and Hakka.

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.

 

Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad by Nicole Constable

 

 

 

 

Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors by Sow-Theng Leong, Tim Wright (Editor)

 

 

 

Identification of Hakka Cultural Markers by Grace E. Wright

 

 

 

 

The Hakka Odyssey and Their Taiwan Homeland by Clyde Kiang

 

 

 

 

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客家

客家是一個具有顯著特徵的漢族分支族群，也是漢族在世界上分佈範圍廣闊、影響深遠的民系之一。

從西晉永嘉之亂開始，中原漢族居民大舉南遷，抵達粵贛閩三地交界處，與當地土著居民雜處，互通婚姻，經過千年演化最終形成相對穩定的客家民系。此後，客家人又以梅州為基地，大量外遷到華南各省乃至世界各地。客家四州為梅州、贛州、汀州、惠州。福建寧化石壁是客家傳說民系形成的中心地域，石壁也被成為「客家祖地」。

起源

客家作為漢族的一個民系或「次民族」，其起源存在多種說法，主要的有中原說和土著說。

• 中原說認為現代客家人是中原移民後代，與南方土著民族無關，是血統最為純正的漢族人。
• 土著說認為南遷漢人與閩粵贛三角地區的古越族、古苗瑤民族混合以後產生「客家先民-古畬先民共同體」，在陸續南遷的漢族逐波疊加影響下，至宋朝後期定型，發展成為現代客家族群。現代客家人具有南方土著先民血統，具有明顯的南方人種特徵和南方土著語言文化特徵。

一般折衷的觀點認為，客家民系是於唐宋年間南遷漢族人在閩、粵、贛交界地區，經過與當地畲族、瑤族等土著居民融合而成的，具有有別於漢族其他民系的獨特的方言、文化和特性的一個漢族民系。它以漢人為主體，同時包合經融合有客化的畲瑤等少數民族。客家民系的主要文化特徵繼承古代中原漢族文化，所以應肯定為漢族的一個支系。但是這支民系不是純漢族血統，其語言夾雜大量壯侗、苗瑤成份，其文化也不是純中原漢文化。所以作為一個群體，其成員就應該包含相互融合，享有共同文化特徵的不同民族的成員。因此，「客家」的說法是作為一個漢族民系的稱謂，並非是一個種族的概念，而是文化的概念。

傳統的客家先民遷徙學說

五次中原遷徙說: 1930年代的客籍民族學家羅香林為代表的研究學者認為，客屬民系自晉朝以來，一共經歷了五次大規模的遷徙，並在這五次遷徙過程中繁衍發展而來。這五次大遷徙的大致過程是：

• 第一次在兩晉時期，始於永嘉之亂，大批中原人舉族南遷至長江流域；
• 第二次始於唐代，大批漢民為躲避安史之亂，由長江流域遷往相對安寧的閩粵贛交界地區；
• 第三次在兩宋時期，北方民族入侵，又有一批漢民遷往贛閩粵地區，與當地畲、瑤等少數民族逐漸交融，最終在宋朝後期定型，發展成為客家民系；
• 第四次是清朝初年，贛南由於滿族統治者的蹂躪以及瘟疫發生，人口銳減，加之閩西和粵東人口膨脹，清政府通令沿海居民向內地擠壓，一部分沿海客家人又回遷贛南，另有一部分由粵東遷往四川；
• 第五次在清朝中後期至近代，不少客家人從粵東閩西一帶遷往沿海，大量移居海外。

六次中原遷徙說: 後來，海外（馬來西亞、美國等地）的客家人從各家各族的族譜統計，亦得出了以下六個主要的遷徙時期：

• 第一次在秦始皇統一全國時期，秦始皇為了鞏固新取得的南方國土，派遣了大批軍民到粵北。後代子孫被稱為北江客家。
• 第二次在東晉永嘉年間，因為五胡亂華，使山西、河北及河南一帶的漢人紛紛渡過黃河，由皖渡長江經贛北；
• 第三次在唐朝僖宗乾符二年 因為黃巢之亂，使江西北部的居民再遷往江西西部、福建西部及南部和廣東東部及北部；
• 第四次在南宋末年，這是客家民系南遷到廣東的關鍵時期。隨著蒙古軍的南進，贛閩客家先民隨敗退的宋皇室進入廣東東部、北部；
• 第五次是明末清初粵閩地區部分客家人由於湖廣填四川的政策遷徙到川渝；
• 第六次是清朝中期，廣東客家地區人口逐漸增加，大量客家人移民至南洋、台灣等地。

客家名稱的由來

一說「客家」之稱出於清代的一次大規模族群土客械鬥，是由當時相對而言以「地主」自居的「廣府民系」等南方民系冠予客家的，本來帶有貶義，是一個他稱。客家人原本沒有特別的自稱。「客家」這個這個他稱名詞後來由於羅香林的客家學說而廣為人所知，逐漸成為族群名稱，不少人開始欣然受之，自稱客家人。但部分並不喜歡這個名詞，在台灣的部分客家人以廣東祖先來和福建人區分。

另有一說，指「客家」的本意應該是古代生活在南方的畲族舊名「山客」、「木客」。而後漢族移民在跟畲族人相處融合的過程中，借用了「客」這個說法，自稱「客家」。但現在說的「客家」則是指客家民系、是客家人的簡稱。這裏的「客」同樣包含了畲族人「山為主，故我為客」的意思。現代的畲族人一樣喜歡自稱「山客」。

但是，有學者認為，「客」不是簡單的相對「主」而言的外來者，和廣府系、福佬系這些同為中原南遷的漢族民系不同，從歷史的現象看，漢族南方各民系的形成時間都比客家民系早，基本都在同一個行政區域之內（有的也只有部分外延），而客家民系形成時間較遲，而且不在同一個行政區域內，是在三省的交界地區。還有一個特別的現象是這方交界地區古代原本的土著除了的越族之外，有「山客」、「木客」、「畲客」等。這些「客」和後來的「漢客」混居一地，長期融合，孕育出一種獨具個性的語言和文化特徵，成為現代客家、畬族族群的共同語言文化基礎。

風俗

• 客家人愛唱山歌，並且在不同的場合、節慶時有對歌的風俗。
• 客家人有在清明節做艾粄的習俗。
• 客家人祭祖通常不在清明，各地的時間不同，有的在中秋前，有的在元宵後。
• 客家人祭祖有時在除夕（告訴祖先是一年最後一天）或大年初一（告訴祖先新的一年開始）。
• 客家人有「拾骨葬」風俗 ( 方式: 在其親人死後，將其屍體直接埋入土中，待其屍體腐爛後，把骨頭取出，放入罈子中貯存的一種葬法。這與客家人的起源有關。客家人本是中原漢人，為了躲避戰亂背井離鄉，他們期盼總有一天能回到家鄉，讓祖先落叶歸根，所以把骨頭收集起來。。
• 客家人與其他漢族人不同，歷來從沒有裹腳的習俗，窮人家女子一般赤腳或穿木屐，與男子無異。

語言

客家人使用一種獨特的語言，通常稱為客家話，在廣西也叫作「涯話」、「新民話」，「麻介(gai)話」，在四川則被稱作「土廣東話」，在江西、湖南等省有「棚民話」等俗稱。

客家話在客家族群認同上扮演著很重要的作用，客家人素有「寧賣祖宗田，莫忘祖宗言」的祖訓。

客家話有一種由西方基督教傳教士於19世紀創立，使用羅馬字母拼寫的文字，由閩南語白話字改造而來。傳教士用這種文字印刷了不少基督教刊物。現代這種文字已經少有人會用。

客家電視台

台灣客家電視台是目前全球唯一以客語為主要播音語言的電視台，該電視台提供網路節目觀賞服務。

服飾

客家傳統服飾為「上穿大襟衫，下穿大襠褲」，其顏色以青色、黑色為主，給人素雅而嚴肅的印象，恰似其沈穩隱斂之民族性。現代客家人基本上都穿西式服裝，與其他漢族人無異。粵東北、贛南等地還保留有一些小孩子穿戴的客家傳統服飾，頭飾通常具有很多銀簪和銀鈴。

飲食文化

客家族群多聚居於華中、華南的丘陵地區，勞動出汗多，需補充鹽分以維持體力，因此飲食傾向多油多鹹的重口味菜，並且好用各式醃製菜類作為食材，如酸菜、梅乾菜等。

客家人勤儉刻苦，平時省吃儉用，只在年節與朔望祭拜祖先神明，或是婚喪喜慶宴客才會宰殺牲畜。為了不浪費食材，極講究妥善運用牲畜之各個部位作成佳餚。演變至今，已形成「四炆四炒」的八道宴客標準菜色。

所謂的「炆」，是指大鍋烹煮、持久保溫。典型的「四炆」係指酸菜炆豬肚、炆爌肉、排骨炆菜頭、肥湯炆筍乾四道菜；而典型的「四炒」係指客家炒肉（又稱客家小炒）、豬腸炒薑絲、鴨血（亦有用豬肚者）炒韭菜、豬肺鳳梨炒木耳（俗稱鹹酸甜）四道菜

日治時期台灣閩粵原住民分佈概圖

臺灣客家人分佈

臺灣客家人主要聚集在靠山的丘陵地，多形成客家人為主的村莊，保有濃厚的客家文化，亦有部份居住在平原。箇中代表如：

• 詔安腔
  • 雲林縣：崙背鄉、二崙鄉，西螺鎮。
  • 台中市：西屯區、北屯區部分地區。《張廖家族族譜》
  • 桃園縣：八德市部分地區、大溪鎮的黃興村。大溪南興的黃姓。
  • 台北縣：新店市的安坑庄。
  • 南投縣：中寮鄉部分地區。
  • 嘉義縣：的中埔鄉境內的詔安厝。
  • 宜蘭縣：部分地區。
• 饒平腔
  • 桃園縣：中壢(芝芭里、興南庄、三座屋、過嶺里)、平鎮(南勢庄)、 新屋(犁頭洲)、觀音(新坡村)；八德(宵裡)。八德關路缺袁、張、邱姓，大園許姓、邱姓，南崁、中壢南勢、大崙王姓，中壢、芝芭里、雙連陂劉姓(前縣長劉邦友家族)，中壢鄧姓，中央大學三座屋邱姓(前副議長邱奕勝家族)、張姓，過嶺、新陂、芝芭里許姓(前縣長許信良、前縣長許應深家族)，新屋冨源陳姓，新屋劉姓，楊梅、山子頂許姓，龍潭邱姓，龍岡後寮陳姓的饒平話。
  • 新竹縣：芎林鄉紙寮窩、上山地區。竹北六家地區。
  • 苗栗縣：卓蘭鎮(老莊)。
  • 彰化縣：永靖鄉，員林鎮部分人為福佬客。
  • 雲林縣：斗六劉姓、莿秱鄉饒平村。
  • 花蓮縣：部分地區。
• 大埔腔
  • 苗栗縣：卓蘭（中街、內灣、水尾）。
  • 臺中縣：豐原市部分地區、東勢鎮，石岡鄉，新社鄉（除了新五村以外），和平鄉部分地區。
• 永定腔(汀州腔)：散居各地。
  • 台北縣：三芝
  • 彰化縣：員林、永靖、溪湖
  • 桃園縣：龍潭，觀音江姓(前國大江瑞添家族)，中壢吳姓(現國民黨主席吳伯雄家族)、胡姓
  • 嘉義縣：部分地區("劉文科公"派下)
• 平和
  • 台中市：北屯區賴姓來自福建省平和縣。
  • 桃園縣：：桃園市呂姓，黃姓
• 海陸（海豐、陸豐）腔
  • 桃園縣：觀音鄉、新屋鄉、楊梅鎮富岡地區。
  • 新竹縣：全縣（除了關西鎮部分地區）。
  • 花蓮縣：花東縱谷平原，光復鄉、吉安鄉、壽豐鄉、新城鄉、玉里鎮、瑞穗鄉部分地區。
• 四縣腔（目前之新聞官方語）
  • 桃園縣：中壢市、龍潭鄉、平鎮市、楊梅鎮。
  • 新竹縣：關西鎮部分地區。
  • 苗栗縣：不靠海的內陸地區，苗栗市、公館、頭份、大湖、銅鑼、三義、 西湖、南庄、頭屋、卓蘭（大部份）。
  • 高雄縣：六堆地區的美濃、杉林、六龜。
  • 屏東縣：六堆地區的竹田、萬巒、內埔、長治、麟洛、新埤、佳冬、高樹。
  • 花蓮縣：部分地區
  • 台東縣：花東縱谷部分地區，台東市、池上、鹿野、關山、成功、太麻里、卑南。
• 混合區域
  • 彰化縣二林鎮、竹塘鄉、埤頭鄉：日據時代日本人為了種植甘蔗招募苗栗、新竹等地的客家人前來移墾，而形成的客家新聚落，雖然聚落頗多，但都在源成農場範圍的七界之內，因此，這些客家莊，才都被稱為「七界內」。
  • 南投縣國姓鄉：來自台中東勢、苗栗卓蘭和新竹等地前來的客家人，佔了境內族群的75%。
  • 南投縣埔里鎮：一百年前，來自台中東勢、苗栗、桃園和新竹等地前來的客家人，佔了境內族群的80%。
  • 花蓮縣鳳林鎮：是一個客家鎮，目前全鎮客家人口約佔百分之八十。係一百年來，相繼自西部的台北、宜蘭、新竹、苗栗等地遷入者。
• 未知區域
  • 彰化縣溪洲鄉部分地區
  • 南投縣的魚池、水裡、信義
  • 嘉義縣的中埔鄉境內中埔、牛稠埔等地，還有枋子林、詔安厝、海豐厝、客庄等地，尚有疏疏落落的客家人。
  • 台南縣白河：相對於白河大排竹村民以「鶴老(福佬)庄」自稱，白河店仔口村民以「客庄內」自稱
  • 宜蘭縣的員山鄉及三星，蘇澳,東山，礁溪,羅東部分地區
  • 花蓮縣：花蓮市部分地區
• 其他區域
  • 桃園縣：桃園市呂姓(前任副總統呂秀蓮家族)南靖話，

推動台灣客家人分佈的二項因素，主要為閩粵械鬥及樟腦採集業。例如花蓮縣客家人多為日治時期樟腦業盛行時，自臺灣西部遷居，臺南縣楠西鄉亦有同例，埔里鎮在一百年前日據時代，來自台中東勢、苗栗、桃園和新竹等地的客家人，從事樟腦業因而遷徙，佔了境內族群的80%。今日全台灣約有15%人口是客家人，台灣客家人口，含福佬客約350~400萬人。

但由於台灣人口中有七成餘為閩南族群，大都市：如台北市、高雄市或其他零星地方也有許多客家人，但是因為沒有說客語的環境，很多人的文化認同已經有所改變，甚至數代前即不通曉客語，同化於鶴佬人，成為「福佬客」。

依據中華民國行政院客家委員會2004年的調查，在「多重認定」的條件下，台灣的新竹縣、苗栗縣超過60%是客家人。其次桃園縣40.1%、新竹市30%、花蓮縣29.8%、屏東縣23.2 %、台東縣20.4%、高雄縣19.6%、彰化縣13%。雲林縣、澎湖縣、台南市縣、連江縣、嘉義市縣、金門縣等則最少，比例不足10%。其他縣市則在10~20%間。

閩粵械鬥

閩粵械鬥（當代又稱閩客械鬥）是發生在18世紀中到19世紀末（台灣清治時期），台灣兩大漢族族群（祖籍福建的鶴佬人與祖籍廣東的客家人）間的武裝衝突。

分類械鬥發生原因十分複雜，約略分為以下：

• 乾隆後期大量移民，先來後到的土地分配衝突。如灌溉水權、爭取墾地、建屋蓋廟等等。
• 清治官衙控制力薄弱，無法禁絕遏止。
• 清領地方官藉漠視兩方爭鬥甚至分化，造成兩敗俱傷以削減反清力量。
• 同鄉移民聚集地相近，遇與外鄉移民利益衝突，容易聚眾私自逞鬥。
• 不同語言、不同宗教分支或不同拜盟的信仰意識衝突。
• 民風強悍與羅漢腳人數過多。

   

  羅漢腳本指台灣清治時期，無宅無妻子，不士不農，不工不賣，不負載道路的台灣男性遊民，後來常被引申為沒有娶妻的中年男子。

  台灣清治初期，對於移民台灣的限制十分嚴格。1684年台灣設縣後頒令，移民台灣首要條件，就是需由官方照單稽查審驗與批准。再來就是渡台者不准攜帶家眷及限制廣東人士渡台。

  由於這些禁令，自此之後將近一百年間，新移民不得攜眷，使得女性奇缺，也因此，無法娶妻的「遊民」充斥，這些遊民即為俗稱的「羅漢腳」。

  據18世紀的《地方志》記載：「台灣一種無宅無妻子，不士不農，不工不賣，不負載道路，俗指謂羅漢腳。嫖賭摸竊，械鬥樹旗，靡所不為。曷言乎羅漢腳也？謂其單身遊食四方，隨處結黨；且衫褲不全，赤腳終生也。」

客家人的力量 by 松本一男

 

 

 

台灣不能沒有客家人 by 張文亮

 

 

 

客家源流新論：誰是客家人 by 陳支平

 

 

 

 

六堆

六堆，原為清治時期台灣南部屏東平原客家人聚落的民間自衛組織。1895年反抗日本治台的乙未戰爭結束後，自衛組嬂瓦解，「六堆」一詞已逐漸轉變為該地區客家族群之概念性統稱。

康熙60年（1721年），原籍福建漳州，在羅漢門養鴨為業，人稱「鴨母王」的朱一貴，因不滿清廷苛政，號召鄉里誓師抗清。當時在下淡水檳榔林（現今屏東縣內埔鄉中林村），同樣對時政不滿的廣東籍杜君英，也率眾前來應合，但兩人因權力爭奪，開始內鬨，朱一貴於是開始對杜君英及其部屬的家鄉──屏東客家莊展開報復。 為了保護身家性命、維繫族群存亡，高屏溪兩岸客家聚落代表在今六堆天后宮(屏東縣內埔媽祖廟)之地集會，以今日竹田鄉西勢村為中心，面向高屏溪的方向，分成前、後、左、右、中，以及先鋒等六個營隊，統稱「六營」，而後為與官方組織區隔，而稱六堆。

 

地圖上找不到的客家桃花源: 六堆

 

 

 

 

六堆客家與清代屏東平原 by 林正慧

 

 

 

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Hakkas in China

Hakkas in Guangdong: The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (圍龍屋) and sijiaolou (四角樓).

Hakkas in Fujian: It was said that the early Hakka ancestors traveled from north China entered Fujian first, then through Tingjiang river they traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China and overseas. So Tingjiang river is also regarded as Hakka's Mother River.

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

Hakkas in Sichuan: Emperor Kang Xi (reigned 1662AD to 1722AD), after a tour of the land,decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after many wars. Seeing the Hakkas were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province the Emperor encouraged the Hakkas in the south to emigrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those who were willing to resettle in Sichuan; eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child. Knowing the land in Sichuan was much fertile than than where they lived and in order to escape the hardship and miserable lives thousands upon thousands of Hakkas living in the regions between theprovinces of Guangdong and Fujian responded and accepted the offer by Emperor Kang Xi. This migration is referred as the fourth migration of the Hakkas. Nowadays, millions of Sichuanese could trace their roots back to the province of Guangdong, especially the district of Meixian. Deng Xiaoping, the former paramount leader of China, was born into a Hakka family in Guang An county in Sichuan province. Deng's ancestors could be traced back to Meixian. Zhu De, the famous commander-in-chief of the Chinese Red Army since its inception in Jing Gang Shan in 1927, was born in Yi Long county in Sichuan province. His father, a Hakka, was born in Guangdong province. Zhu De's grandfather took his family and emigrated to Sichuan province. He was one of the thirteen children of the Zhu family.

Hakkas in Hong Kong: In contemporary society, the Hakka people in Hong Kong have been identified primarily through their concentration and population in the villages and small towns in the New Territories, which were unpopulated and did not have a native or 'Punti' population. The Hakkas thus became the 'puntis' of these areas when they moved in. During the Qing Dynasty, the Hakka people were displaced and persecuted due to their cultural differences from the Manchus of the Qing. Refusing to practise the binding of feet (which was not a practice in Chinese classical eras), the Hakka people were marked out as 'Hak' or 'guest' people in Hong Kong [Cantonese dialect transliteration], as these people never state which part of China their ancestors were from. The last great migration of the Hakka people towards Hong Kong took place at the time of the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864). Hakka dissenters featured in the anti-government rebellion and subsequently were persecuted following the failure of the Taipings.

The Hakka people practised mainstream Confucian practices as any other Han Chinese group, with a hierarchised dependence on authority given through the family head. Christianised by Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries in the mid-19th century who gave food to the Hakka and the poor, the Hakka were often slanderously categorised by Puntis with the cult practices of Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Tianguo movement. Thus the new settlers were forced by the circumstances and, not physically by the Puntis, to concentrate on the northern New Territories of Hong Kong. The Hakka people placed a greater reliance on the internal strengths of their own customs, cultural identity and education. This model of community survival, dependent on the integrity of the nuclear clan unit in the face of adversity, has contributed to the 20th century outcome of preserving the cultural identity of the Hakka people. British Law was also in force in Hong Kong, preventing any major incidents from taking place. Over the past forty years, due to the social pressures of Hong Kong, many young Hakkas (as well as other internal Chinese migrant groups such as the Shanghai people and the Hoklo people) have been 'localised' and adopted Punti speech.

Occupationally, Hakka were agriculture-based, as were about 95% of the Chinese population then. There was high unemployment in those times as Hong Kong was still a backwater. The Hakka 'mountain song' as well as songs of 'eight tones' have become famous, particularly outside of Hong Kong by several Hakka artists. The traditional Hakka mountain song expressed human struggle and toil in the early and harsh settlement of a land which was untreaded by man, requiring clearing and human effort. Hakka folk-art remains a strong reminder of the folk origin and connection and the naturalistic tendencies of the Hakka populace, working within a self-dependent synergistic agrarian bioecosystem, in exactly the same manner as any other Chinese peasant farmer of the time. Geographically segregated from Qing Dynasty control and persecution following China's military failures of the 19th century, the Hakka people placed great reliance on a traditional but free society with the opportunities to trade and improve. The striving ethos in the Hakka people of Hong Kong also emphasized ancestral and cultural customs with strong Confucian leanings, recognised for its Chineseness, and the modern Western Christian thoughts. In Hong Kong, Hakka villages continue to be aggregated loosely around clanship, maintaining blood-ties to families (often identified through genealogy), as most well connected Puntis also do, but is lost amongst the lower class Puntis. Land rights in The New Territories of Hong Kong are based on English Common Law in respect to Land Law, and apply to both Puntis and Hakkas, and any other people of the region, irrespective of their spoken language. These laws are accepted and followed by the Hong Kong SAR government. Buying and selling of land was also done through the ages.

It is well documented that when the British took over Hong Kong, the territory was almost unpopulated. The Hakkas of Hong Kong were one its earliest inhabitants, and many arrived several centuries before the migration into Hong Kong by Punti Cantonese people. The term Hakka refers to a people and not who was the first to arrived in Hong Kong. To be technically correct, the Hakkas are the Puntis of Hong Kong if one were to make Punti mean aboriginal. Late arrivers to Hong Kong, such the Shanghainese during the Chinese Civil War, are not referred to as 'guests' but by the city from which they took their language. The Hakkas were different as they did not reveal their origins because many of them fled during the period when under the Chinese Law, they could be sentenced to death because someone in their clan within nine generations had committed treason.

 

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Hakkas Worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar.

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There was once a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesian, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, the Hokkien (Minnan) pronunciation of Ke (Hak).

 

Hakkas in Indonesia

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. In the early 20th Century new arrivals from Meixian joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak.

Bangka Belitung: Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province. They were the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000. Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well.

The first ancestors of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in 1700s from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have stayed on the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960s. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other regions, they were strictly banned by government before 1999. The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism or Buddhism, and significant number of Christian. A little number of them confessed Islam as some of them married Malays.

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generations. The younger generations speak much more Malay than the older Hakka generation. As Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words, where differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely, The Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still refer to themselves as Thong ngin as well as younger people and spoke Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Muntok area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to Jakarta. There are more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta who speak both Malay and Thong boi.

There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in China and Hongkong. They proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in Qingming.

Pontianak: Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.

The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

Singkawang: The hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speaks a different standard of hakka dialect to the hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu (Dabu 大埔), a district in Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas.

Jakarta: Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increases with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.

 

Hakkas in East Timor

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion, many Hakkas were killed. According to a book source, it was estimated that about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor.

Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their education in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had become successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation.

 

Hakkas in Malaysia

Hakkas form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. During his time, Chung Keng Quee, Capitan China of Perak and Penang was founder of Taiping, leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist, an innovator in the mining of tin and was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions, founded Kuala Lumpur and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.

In East Malaysia, they form a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah.

 

Hakkas in Jamaica

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica on 3 major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. Under the terms of the contract, free return passage was available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did. In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of Yellow Fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Less than 50 or these immigrants survived. The rest died of Yellow Fever.

Chin Pa-kung (a.ka. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.

During the 1960s-1970s, there was substantial migration of Hakka Jamaican Chinese to the USA and Canada.

 

Hakkas in Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.

As of 2008, the total population of Sino-Mauritian, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.

 

Hakkas in Thailand

There are no records for us to study when Hakka Descendants pioneered into Thailand. In 1901, Mr. Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. So, he tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the clubs in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 "The Hakka Society of Siam" was established and Chao Phraya Yommarat, Interior Minister then was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the society nameplate located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Mr. Yang Liqing was the President of the first period.

 

Hakkas in Singapore

The Hakka constitute 11.4% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Since their language is somewhat similar to Mandarin, albeit strongly influenced by Min-nan and Yue, they were long thought to have migrated from Northern China between the 16th and the 17th century. Recent genetic studies, however, have shown that the Hakkas originate from Southern China, like the other Chinese language groups in Singapore.

Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, unlike the Samsui women, those Hakka women wore black, rather than red headgear.

 

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Hakka Language

Map of Sinitic Languages by Gohu1er

Hakka (客家話) is one of the main subdivisions of the Chinese language spoken predominantly in southern China by the Hakka ethnic group and descendants in diaspora throughout East and Southeast Asia and around the world.

Due to its usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, the Hakka language has developed numerous variants or dialects, spoken in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Guizhou provinces, including Hainan island and Taiwan. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, Cantonese, Minnan and most of the significant spoken variants of the Chinese language.

There is a pronunciation difference between Taiwanese Hakka dialect and Guangdong Hakka dialect. Amongst the dialects of Hakka, the Moi-yen/Moi-yan (梅縣) dialect of northeast Guangdong has typically been viewed as a prime example of the Hakka language, forming a sort of standard dialect.

See Identification of the varieties of Chinese for more on the dispute whether Hakka and other Chinese linguistic groups should be properly considered languages or dialects.

Etymology: The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the language literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak 客 (Mandarin: kè) means "guest", and ka 家 (Mandarin: jīa) means "family". Amongst themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa (-va) 客家話, Hak-fa (-va), 客話, Tu-gong-dung-fa (-va) 土廣東話, literally, "Native Guangdong language," and Ngai-fa (-va) 𠊎話, "My/our language".

History: The Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest. The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Henan and Shaanxi provinces, and brought with them features of Chinese languages spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin.) Hakka is quite conservative, and is generally closer to Middle Chinese than other modern Chinese languages. The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese languages, but which have been lost in Mandarin. The distance between Hakka and the more well-known Cantonese may be compared to that between Portuguese and Spanish, whereas Mandarin might be compared to French -- more distantly related, and with a quite different phonology.

Middle Chinese (中古漢語), or Ancient Chinese as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese language spoken during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th century - 10th century). The term "Middle Chinese", in contrast to Old Chinese and Modern Chinese, is usually used in the context of historical Chinese phonology, which seeks to reconstruct the pronunciation of Chinese used during these times.

Middle Chinese can be divided into an early period, generally called Early Middle Chinese, and a later period, Late Middle Chinese. The transition point between Early and Later Middle Chinese is thought to be during the Mid-Tang Dynasty and is indicated by phonological developments.

Due to the migration of its speakers, the Hakka language may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary are found in Hakka, Min and Cantonese Chinese languages.

Some people consider Hakka to have mixed with other languages, such as the language of the She people, throughout its development.

The She (畲) people are an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They are the largest minority in the Fujian province. They are also present in the provinces of Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi and Guangdong. The She language is a Hmong-Mien language. Most of the She today speak Chinese dialects, like Hakka. Those who retain their own language - approximately 1,200 individuals in Guangdong province - call themselves Ho Ne "mountain people" (活聂).

Other Dialects of Hakka: The Hakka language has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers in the majority. Surrounding Meixian are the counties of Pingyuan 平遠, Dabu 大埔, Jiaoling 蕉嶺, Xingning 興寧, Wuhua 五華, and Fengshun 豐順. Each is said to have its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, the Xingning does not have rimes ending in [-m] or [-p]. These have merged into [-n] and [-t] ending rimes, respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the [-u-] medial, so whereas Meixian dialect pronounces the character 光 as [kwɔŋ˦], Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as [kɔŋ˧], which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.

As much as endings and vowels are important, the tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones, as typified by Meixian dialect above. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their Ru Sheng tones, and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-Ru tones. Such a dialect is Changting 長汀 which is situated in the Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng 海 豐 and Lufeng 陸 豐 situated on coastal south eastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the Qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in Ping and Ru tones and a Shang tone).

The Hoi-liuk (海陸) Hakka dialect speakers found on Taiwan originated from this region. This particular dialect contains postalveloar consonants, usually not found in other Chinese languages. Taiwan's other main population of Hakka speakers, the Sixian (Hakka: Siyen 四縣) speakers come from Jiaying 嘉應 and surrounding Jiaoling, Pingyuan, Xingning, and Wuhua dialects. Jiaying county later changed its name to Meixian.

 

 

Zhou -- Qin -- Guan Dong Yu --Zhong Yuan Yu -- Hakka -- Hakka

Zhou -- Qin -- Qin/Jin (晉國) -- Guan Zhong Yu -- N -- N -- Hakka

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* DNA檢測解密中國人種遷徙 純種漢族人已不存在 by 李寧源

Excerpt: “我們一般認為漢族人屬於中原人”，蘭州大學生命科學學院副教授謝小東告訴記者，最近，他剛剛完成了西北地區少數民族變遷的DNA研究。

在中國歷史上，中原這個範圍主要是現在的河南，還包括山西南部，江蘇西部及安徽西北部少數地方，也就是說，只有居住在這裡的人才算是中原人，也就是比較純粹的漢族人。

“但這個說法又不對了，在商周時期，建都於今天西安的西周肯定屬於漢族，但到了春秋戰國時期，同樣誕生於陜西的秦則直接被定義為戎，成了少數民族。”謝小東說。

另一個有趣的現象是，中國人一般認為自己是“炎黃子孫”，但根據研究，黃帝發源於今天的甘肅沁陽到天水一帶，炎帝發源於隴東到陜西的黃土高原地區，這些地區實際上都不屬於中原。“這些地方曾長期被成為北狄。”

“因此，漢族只是某一時期人為的地區性劃分，這個民族並不具有其特定的定義，只是為了于周邊相區分而建立的。”謝小東告訴記者。

而隨著中國歷史的變遷，即使曾經被確切定義為漢族地區的居民，也發生了大規模遷移。由於服兵役、逃避戰亂、因罪流放等因素，漢族一直在從中原地區向南遷移。

“根據研究，現在的客家人倒是很純粹的繼承了當時中原人的文化傳統，比如他們說古語，風俗習慣也有歷史痕跡，他們才是真正的中原人，但他們現在只能以少數族群的形式存在了。”

“中國不存在純種漢族人與長期的大規模人種遷移也有關係，在很長的歷史時期內，周邊少數民族甚至周邊國家都在不斷與漢族融合。”

過大規模血樣檢測，現在，大多數內遷少數民族的來源及走向已經得到了確定。

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Abstract: Hakka and Chaoshanese are two unique Han populations residing in southern China but with northern Han (NH) cultural traditions and linguistic influences. Although most of historical records indicate that both populations migrated from northern China in the last two thousand years, no consensus on their origins has been reached so far. To shed more light on the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese, mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 170 Hakka from Meizhou and 102 Chaoshanese from Chaoshan area, Guangdong Province, were analyzed. Our results show that some southern Chinese predominant haplogroups, e.g. B, F, and M7, have relatively high frequencies in both populations. Although median network analyses show that Hakka/Chaoshanese share some haplotypes with NH, interpopulation comparison reveals that both populations show closer affinity with southern Han (SH) populations than with NH. In consideration of previous results from nuclear gene (including Y chromosome) research, it is likely that matrilineal landscapes of both Hakka and Chaoshanese have largely been shaped by the local people during their migration southward and/or later colonization in southern China, and factors such as cultural assimilation, patrilocality, and even sex-bias in the immigrants might have played important roles during the process.

 

* Genetic 'Map' of Asia's Diversity: An international scientific effort has revealed the genetics behind Asia's diversity by BBC News

Excerpt: The Human Genome Organisation's (HUGO) Pan-Asian SNP Consortium carried out a study of almost 2,000 people across the continent.

Their findings support the hypothesis that Asia was populated primarily through a single migration event from the south.

The researchers described their findings in the journal Science.

They found genetic similarities between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern latitudes.

The team screened genetic samples from 73 Asian populations for more than 50,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

 

* Distribution of HLA Gene and Haplotype Frequencies in Taiwan: A Comparative Study Among Min-nan, Hakka, Aborigines and Mainland Chinese by C. K. Shaw

Abstract: A total of 8,497 blood samples were typed for HLA-A, B, DR and DQ. Of these, 7,137 Min-nan, 714 Hakka, 535 Mainland Chinese (152 from North China, 211 from Middle China, and 172 from South China) and 111 Aborigines were randomly selected from Tzu Chi Taiwan Marrow Donor Registry (TCTMDR). Differences in HLA gene and antigen frequencies have been observed between various ethnic groups of the Chinese population in Taiwan. The phylogenic tree shows Taiwan Aborigines and Javanese cluster together; Min-nan shares a common cluster with Hakka, Southern Hans and Thai; and Northern Hans shares a cluster with Middle Hans. The separation between Northern/Middle and Southern Chinese Hans support the idea that Northern and Southern Chinese have different genetic background. Aborigines appeared to be quite distinct in the distribution of a majority of the class I and class II antigens. High frequency of HLA-A24 (60.4%) and relatively restricted HLA polymorphisms are noted in Aborigines. The HLA haplotypes with high frequency in Aborigines included A24-B60-DRB1*04, A24-B60-DRB1*14, A24-B48-DRB1*04, and A24-B48-DRB1*14, which are different from the other ethnic groups. Although the phylogenic tree separates Aborigines and Han Chinese populations, 4 out of 20 most common HLA-A, -B, and -DR haplotypes presented in both Aborigines and Han Chinese may reflect an ancient common origin or intermixture between early settlers of Han Chinese and Taiwan Aborigines. The results in this study are essentially a summary of the observed gene/haplotype frequencies and differences among various ethnic groups in Taiwan.

 

* Biological Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Taiwan by Jen-yih (Albert ) Chu

Based on family pedigree records, two main ethnic groups in Taiwanese Han, Hoklo (Minnan) and Hakka, are traditionally considered descendants of migrants of Han from the " Central Plain " and " Areas of Yellow and Luo Rivers " of northern China. Recent biological data including immunoglobulin, human lymphocyte antigen, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase mutants, thalassemia mutants, microsatellite, mitochondria DNA and other biological studies indicate that Han Chinese have two origins, one in the south and the other in the north. These biological studies also indicate, that the Hoklo and Hakka originated mainly from the southern groups of China. Immunoglobulin studies show that Hakka and Hoklo populations in China are closely related to the southern minorities of China. Based on the gene frequency of immunoglobulin haplotypes, it is estimated that 20-25% of the genes of current Hakka or Hoklo populations in China originated from northern Han and 75-80% from southern groups of China. The HLA typing pattern of Taiwanese aborigines is very different from that of Chinese Han. Analysis of HLA suggests 13% Taiwanese aboriginal genes are in the current Taiwanese Hoklo and Hakka gene pool. A similar percentage of aboriginal ancestry can be estimated by comparing mutant patterns of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in Taiwanese Han, Taiwanese aborigines, southern Chinese and Southeast Asians. Additional data from linguistics, social surveys and archeology also suggest that Hakka and Hoklo populations originated primarily in southern China. Recent publications indicate that the method of using family pedigree books to trace the origin of Hakka and Hoklo to northern China are questionable. Biologically, Taiwanese Han groups are most close to the southern Han group in China. In short, it is highly unlikely that Hakka and Hoklo populations in Taiwan and China are descendants of migrants of northern Chinese. Probably, there are no more than 15-20% of Taiwanese Hakka and Hoklo whose ancestors originated from the northern Han of China. The majority of ancestors (65-70%) might from the southern groups, originally living in southern China, and the other 15% are descended from Taiwanese aborigines.

 

* Origin of Hakka and Hakkanese: A genetics Analysis by Hui Li

Abstract: Hakka is a distinctive Han Chinese population in Southern China speaking Hakkanese. The origin of Hakka has been controversial. In this report, we analyzed Y chromosomal markers in 148 Hakka males. Principle component analysis of Y-SNP haplotype distribution shows Hakka is clusteed strongly with the Han in Northern China, and is also close to She, a Hmong-Mien-speaking population, while the general Southern Han is fairly close to Daic populations. Admixture analysis revealed that the relative genetic contribution 80.2% (Han), 13% (She) and 6.8% (Kam) in Hakka. The network of Y-STR haplotype of M7 individuals in all concerned populations suggested two possible origins of Hmong-Mien contribution in Hakka: One is from Hubei and the other is from Canton. The Kam contribution in Hakka is likely from Kan-Yue, the ancient aborigine of Kiangsi (Jiangxi). The frequency of 9bp-deletion in Region V of mitochondrial DNA of Hakka is 19.7%, which is quite close to She but far from Han. We therefore concluded that genetically the majority of Hakka gene pool shall come from North Han with She contributing the most among all non-Han groups. Regarding the Hmong-Mien character of Hakkanese, the genetic structure of Hakka shows their core may be Kim-man, the ancient Hmong-Mien. We hypothesized that a great number of Han people from North China join this population in succession. Southern Chinese dialects, such as Hakkanese may also be those languages of Southern aborigines at first, and turn to extant appearance under the continuance effect of Northern Chinese.

The She (畲) people are an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They are the largest minority in the Fujian province. They are also present in the provinces of Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi and Guangdong. The She language is a Hmong-Mien language. Most of the She today speak Chinese dialects, like Hakka. Those who retain their own language - approximately 1,200 individuals in Guangdong province - call themselves Ho Ne "mountain people" (活聂).

 

* Genetic Link Between Chaoshan and Other Chinese Han Populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Neighbor-Joining Tree

Neighbor-joining tree constructed by Nei’s genetic distance based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of Chaoshan and the other nine Chinese Han populations. Chaoshan clusters closely with the Mainland Minnan and the Mainland Hakka. All southern China-related groups in general cluster together and are separated from the China North group with the China Middle standing in between.

 

* Genetic Relationship of Populations in China by J.Y. Chu

Abstract: Despite the fact that the continuity of morphology of fossil specimens of modern humans found in China has repeatedly challenged the Out-of-Africa hypothesis, Chinese populations are underrepresented in genetic studies. Genetic profiles of 28 populations sampled in China supported the distinction between southern and northern populations, while the latter are biphyletic. Linguistic boundaries are often transgressed across language families studied, reflecting substantial gene flow between populations. Nevertheless, genetic evidence does not support an independent origin of Homo sapiens in China. The phylogeny also suggested that it is more likely that ancestors of the populations currently residing in East Asia entered from Southeast Asia.

 

* Genetic Analysis on Tuoba Xianbei Remains Excavated from Qilang Mountain Cemetery in Qahar Right Wing Middle Banner of Inner Mongolia by Yu Changchun, et al.

Unrooted Neighbor-joining Tree of Tuoba Xianbei Group and 13 Populations Compared

 

* A Study of the Genetic Relationships Among Aboriginal Populations in Taiwan ：Comparison of Pseudogene Sequences on Autosomal Chormorsome

UPGMA Tree

(P-Puyuma, Ta-Atayal, S-Saisiat, T-Tsou, R-Rukai, Pai-Paiwan, H-Taiwan Han, A-Amis, B-Bunun)

 

NJ Tree

 

 

* More Genetic Sharing among the Population of Taiwan than Expected: A plain tribes (Pinpu) perspective by Marie Lin, et al.

Mitochondrial DNA (Neighbor Joining Phylogram)

 

* A Homeland or Hostland? The power and challenges of genetic studies on Austronesian’s expansion by Mutsu Hsu and Shu-Juo Chen

Neighbor-joining Tree of Taiwan AN Populations, East Asians, Southeast Asians and Other Populations Worldwide (from Chu et al. 2001)

 

Neighbor-joining (NJ) Tree for the Nine Taiwan AN Populations and Other Asian and African Populations (from Tajima et al. 2003)

Ami showed difference with other eight populations (including Yami)

 

 

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

 

Diagram of Relationship Based on a Cluster Analysis (UPGMA) of Mahalanobis' Generalized Distances Using 29 Cranial Measurements Recorded in 55 Male Groups

 

 

HLA-B46

HLA-B46 (B46) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the gene products of HLA-B*4601 allele. B*4601 resulted from a rare, interlocus, gene conversion between B62, probably B*1501, and a HLA-C allele. B*4601 is the most common HLA-B allele that does not have an origin within Africa, and estimated 400 million people in Eastern Asia carry a B46 allele. When found B*4601 segregates with only 2 HLA-Cw alleles, A limited number of HLA-A and HLA-DRB1 alleles suggesting that the allele recently expanded from a limited sized group within SE Asia. Extremely low frequencies outside of Eastern Asia are indicators of a recent expansion of B46 from a recently small population. The frequency distribution suggests the ancestral B46 population was in SE China, or, potentially Burma (Myanmar or Laos, untested). B46 in asia correlates with wet-rice farming. The exceptions are notable, it has been found in the Nivkhi on north-eastern Sakalin Island, the Ainu, and the Nivkhi-related (genetically) Tlinglet population of Alaska at trace levels. (For terminology help see: HLA-serotype tutorial)

 

HLA B*4601 frequencies

Population	freq (%)
Buyei (China)	21.6
Miao (China)	18.4
Han (2) (Yunnan, China)	17.9
Thai (in Singapore)	17.2
Southern Chinese (in Taiwan)	17.2
Chinese (in Hong Kong)	16.3
Hakka (2) (Taiwan)	15.6
Guangzhou (China)	15.5
Northeastern Thailand	15.1
Minnan (Avg 1 & 2) (Taiwan)	15.0
Middle' Chinese (in Taiwan)	15.0
Hakka (Taiwan)	13.6
Wuhan (China)	13.5
Maonan (Guangxi , China)	13.4
Chinese (in Singapore)	13.4
Vietnamese	13.2
Southern Han (China)	11.5
Shanghai (China)	11.2
Meizhou Han (Guangdong, China)	10.0
Shijiazhuang Tianjian Han (Beijing)	9.6
Guangzhou Han (China)	9.4
Nu (Yunnan, China)	9.0
Northern Chinese (in Taiwan)	8.6
Pazeh (Taiwan)	8.2
Aichi (Japan)	7.6
Lisu (Yunnan, China)	7.2
Beijing (China)	6.8
Naxi (Yunnan, China)	6.1
Hui (Qinghai, China)	5.9
Northern Han (China)	5.7
Japan (3)	5.0
Hyogo (Japan)	4.7
South Korea (3)	4.4
Man (Harbin City, China)	4.1
Siraya (Taiwan)	3.9
Central Japan	3.6
Timorese	2.6
Inner Mongolia (China)	2.0
Javanese (in Singapore)	2.0
Oold (Mongolia)	1.9
Nivkhi (Sakhalin I, Russia) sland	1.9
Thao (Taiwan)	1.7
Riau Malay (in Singapore)	1.5
Tuva (2) (Russia)	1.4
Tibetan (China)	1.3
Khalkh (Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia)	1.2
Ainu (Hokkaidō, Japan)	1.0
Okinawa (in Hawaii, USA)	1.0
Indigenous (Taiwan)	0.9
Khalkha (Mongolia)	0.5
Brahui (Pakistan)	0.5
Linqu County (Shandong, China)	3.3

 

HLA-B*4601 Abundance

Dark Red = 7% or greater,
Red = 3 to 7%
Orange = 1 to 3%
Green = O to 1%
Black = regions not typed

A2-Cw11(1)-B46: This haplotype is unique in several regards, first and most importantly the B46 serotype is not from Africa, this distinguishes it from every other known B serotype. It is the result of a recombination event between B62(B*1501) and an HLA-C allele within Asia. This event happened recently as there is only one major allele and minor alleles are at trace frequencies. There has been some recombination between this haplotype, A24 and A11 bearing alleles, probably in a local (or tribal population). B46 is found wherever Asian wet-rice farming peoples have traveled and is found at low frequencies in non-farming indigenous groups. The one exception is the Ninhvet of Siberia and the Eastern Tlinglet of Alaska. This B46 contribution appears to have been recent. Because of the numbers of people represented by the sample groups, and its relative high frequency in those group A2-B46 is one of the most frequent, if not the most frequent A-B haplotype in the world, even though it is absent from the indigenous populations of most peoples in the world.

The most common haplotype, and probably the ancestral haplotype given its distribution from the Ninhivet to Indonesia is:

A*0207 : C*0102 : B*4601 : DRB1*0901 : DQA1*0302 : DQB1*0303

A different haplotype that is more common in Korea and Japan is

A*0207 : C*0102 : B*4601 : DRB1*0803 : DQA1*0103 : DQB1*0601

B46, or a closely linked allele may have been under positive selection in rice farmers of Asia.

 

 

* 台灣人的來源 by 林媽利

* Taiwanese Hakka: Origin--Modern Biological Studies by Albert Chu

* 非原住民台灣人的基因結構 by 林媽利

* 台灣人和印支半島族群的關係 by 鄭昭任

* True History of Taiwan by Sim Kiantek

* 血統獨立by 沈建德

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* The Origin of Minnan & Hakka, the So-Called "Taiwanese" Inferred by HLA Study by M. Lin

Abstract: The Minnan and Hakka people groups, the so-called "Taiwanese", are the descendants of early settlers from the southeast coast of China during the last few centuries. Genetically they showed affinities to southern Asian populations as determined by phylogenetic trees and correspondence analysis calculated from HLA allele frequencies. This corresponds historically with the fact that they are the descendants of the southeast coastal indigenous population (Yueh) of China and should therefore not be considered as descendants of "pure" northern Han Chinese. A33-B58-DRB1*03 (A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02), the most common HLA haplotype among "Taiwanese", with a haplotype frequency of 6.3%, has also been found to be the most common haplotype among Thai-Chinese and Singapore Chinese, two other populations also originating from the southeast coast of China. These observations suggest that this haplotype is the most well conserved ancient haplotype of the Yueh (從組織抗原推論閩南人及客家人，所謂「台灣人」的來源 by 林媽利).

 

 

HLA-A33

A33 shows two different distributions that can be discriminated by subtyping capability of SSP-PCR: A*3301 and A*3303.

A*3301 Distribution: The first distribution appears to have a Western distribution that introgresses into Europe as a result of the Post-neolithic periods. It is commonly found in linkage disequilibration within the A*3301-Cw*0802-B*1402 haplotype which can be extended to DRB1 and DQB1 in certain instances. The source of its general expansion appears to be the Middle East or the Levant, as it is found in the Palestinian population. B14 splits into B64 (B*1401) and B65 (B*1402) but the only Arabian people which show both antigens are the United Arab Emirates.

A*3303 Distribution: Certain alleles confound population histories. At the top of that list is A*3303. This allele appears to jump, literally, out of West Africa into South Asia. The point of origin is Africa, most likely central or western Africa given the low levels in East Africa (although much of East Africa is undersampled). In certain tested populations of the Middle East the level of A*3303 is either very low, or non-existent. Within East Africa Sudan appears to be the highest at around 2%. The frequency of A*3303 begins to rise in eastern Arabia (Oman, UAE) and then markedly rise in the Brahui and Balochi of Pakistan.

 

 

Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is an Arab country in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula.

The name we call the country by today, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen. Many tribes settled in Oman making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding and many present day Omani families are able to trace their ancestral routes to other parts of Arabia.

From the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. Achaemenids in the 6th century BC controlled and influenced the Oman peninsula. This was most likely exerted from a coastal center such as Sohar. By about 250 B.C. the Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in Oman. In the third century A.D. the Sasanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later

 

The United Arab Emirates, most earliest known human occupation for which there is significant evidence dated from the Neolithic period, 5500 BC. Even at this early stage, there is proof of interaction with the outside world, especially with civilisations to the north. These contacts persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, commencing around 3000BC. Foreign trade, the recurring motif in the history of this strategic region, seems to have flourished also in later periods, facilitated by domestication of the camel at the end of the second millennium BC.

By the first century AD overland caravan traffic between Syria and cities in southern Iraq, followed by seaborne travel to the important port of Omana (perhaps present-day Umm al-Qaiwain) and thence to India was an alternative to the Red Sea route used by the Romans. Pearls had been exploited in the area for millennia but at this time the trade reached new heights. Seafaring was also a mainstay and major fairs were held at Dibba, bringing merchants from as far as China.

 

The Baloch (بلوچ) is an ethnic group that inhabits the region of Balochistan in the southeast corner of the Iranian plateau in Southwest Asia, including parts of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

The Baloch speak Balochi, an Iranian language. They mainly inhabit mountainous terrains, which have allowed them to maintain a distinct cultural identity and resist domination by neighbouring rulers. Some 60 percent of the total Baloch population live in Pakistan. About 25 percent inhabit the contiguous region of southeastern Iran. In Pakistan the Balochi people are divided into two groups, the Sulaimani and the Makrani, separated from each other by a compact block of Brahui tribes.

There are different viewpoints about the origins of the Balochs, including Arabs, Turks, Iranis, and Italians who migrated to Balochistan with Alexander The Great and did not return back.

L. M. Dames says that Balochs are ancestral Irani, who migrated from the southern coastline of the Caspian Sea. L. W. Oshanen, a well-known anthropologist of the Soviet Union, has supported Dames' theory. The northern and southern Baloch, however, consider themselves of Arab descent, and Aleppo their first homeland. There is no doubt that Baloch tribes, particularly Bugti, and Rind, joined the Balochis during wars in Baloch regions, so there were many Arabs in that area at the time. To this viewpoint that Balochis are Arabs, Rai Bahadur Hetoraam also agrees and identifies them as descendants of Hazrat Ameer Hamza, uncle of Hazrat Muhammad.

 

The Brahui people or Brohi people (Brahui: بروہی) are a Dravidian ethnic group of about 2.2 million people with the majority found in Kalat, Pakistan, but also found in smaller numbers in neighboring Afghanistan, India, and Iran. They are closely linked to the Baloch with whom they have substantially intermingled and whose cultural traits they have absorbed. Linguistically they were believed to be a remnant of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley civilization. The Brahui language, also called Bravi, has been theorized as the remnant of a North Dravidian language. Due to its isolation from the other Dravidian tongues it has considerable Balochi vocabulary and counting begins with Balochi numbers. There is no distinct indigenous script for Brahui; like Balochi it is written in Perso-Arabic alphabet. Brahui is spoken in the following areas: Merv area of Turkmenistan, Sindh, Zahedan and Zabol in Iranian Balochistan, southern parts of Afghanistan, Pakistani Balochistan and with the bulk in the Jhalawan region.

 

HLA A*3303 Frequencies

Population	(%)
Cameroon Baka	25.0
Cameroon Sawa	23.1
India West Bhils	18.0
Pakistan Burusho	17.9
South Korea (3)	16.3
India West Parsis	14.0
Singapore Thai	13.3
India Mumbai Marathas	13.0
Japan	12.8
Pakistan Baloch	12.7
China South Han	11.5
Singapore Riau Malay	10.9
Singapore Chinese	10.1
Hong Kong Chinese	10.0
Chaoshan	9.8
Mali Bandiagara	9.4
China Inner Mongolia	9.3
Singapore Chinese Han	9.3
Singapore Javan	9.0
India North Hindus	8.7
Guinea Bissau	8.5
Taiwan Minnan	8.3
Taiwan Hakka	8.2

 

 

A33-B58-DR3-DQ2: One haplotype stands out, the A33-B58-DR3-DQ2 haplotype which is found in West Africa, in Sudan, and Pakistan, scattered along West Indias coast, the Turkic republics and appears to have recently introgressed into Korea (post-Yayoi period of Japan) and China. So recent arrival into Asia that the level of HLA DR3-DQ2 (see celiac disease) in Korea is 2.9%. Korea is the major recent source of Japanese genes, by the Yayoi period that lasted from 3000 to 1600 years ago approximately 3/4ths of Japanese genetic makeup is attributed to this migration. And yet there is trace DR3-DQ2 in the Japanese, none in the Ainu nor many other indigeonous Siberian groups.

HLA DR3-DQ2 is not spread evenly in the among humans. It is has a substantially higher frequency in the western world, except indigenous Native American. It is virtually absent in some Asian populations. Its current world distribution suggest that it spread from Africa with a wave that spread late in human evolution which reached Central Asia more recently, a possibility is that it spread with agrarian cultures that migrated from Africa.

DR3-DQ2 probably originated from Central or West Africa. DQ2.5cis haplotype is the second highest frequency haplotype in the Aka (N. Congo) and several other surrounding groups it is virtually absent in the !Kung. DQ2.5 primarily spread to the northwest and appears to have spread late in global spread of anatomically modern humans. The !Kung and Austronesians are reasonable marker populations earliest (eatward) spread out of Africa and those that spread rapidly, since the ancestors of the !Kung appear to have come from East Africa and share many Cw_B types in common with Austronesians and Northern Eurasians. DQ2.5 is at low frequencies in both of these populations, and it did not spread to Japan or the New World in pre-Columbian times. There is the possibility it spread to Arabia, but through stepwise expansion of small groups was lost from the DQ genetic repertoire.

DQ2.5 appears to be derived from DQ2.2 by gene recombination. One haplotype DQA1*0501:DQB1*0202 can be found in Africa suggesting DQB1*0201 evolved from DQB1*0202. The regions of Africa where DQ2.5 is at its highest frequencies indicate potential sources for western European haplotypes (e.g. Bedoin) but also indicate recent dispersion making precise evolution difficult to interpret. Other evidence for a west African origin/expansion is seen with the probable origin of DQA1*0501 from DQA1*0505, which is at relatively high frequencies in west-central Africa.

A33-Cw3-B58-DR3-DQ2: Within eastern Asia A*3303 is in linkage dissiquilbrium with on haplotype in particular, the specific genetic makeup is:

A*3303 : C*0302 : B*5801 : DRB1*0301 : DQA1*0501 : DQB1*0201

It is interesting that the Cw allele in the Pakistani population is the same as the allele in the East Asian population C*0302. 8.3 of 11.1% of the A33-B58 in the Baloch Pakistani can is linked to DR3 and presumbably DQ2.5 (There are few exceptions outside of Africa). This extends a haplotype the forms a semi-circle around the Indian subcontinent indicating a subsantive and relatively recent genetic relationship. The Parsis of Pakistan lack A33-B58, as with groups to the far west of Pakistan. The A33-B58-DR3-DQ2 haplotype appears to have originated in whole from West Africa, with current possibilities for Sudan or Northern Ethiopia as points of exit from Africa and a migration by the Indian Ocean to the western side of the Indus River.

 

HLA A*33-B58 Frequencies

Population	freq (%)
Chinese (Thailand)	12.6
Baloch (Pakistan)	11.1
Chaoshan (China)	8.1
Chinese (Singapore)	5.5
Burusho (Pakistan)	4.6
Hui	4.0
Mongolian	3.7
Kalash (Pakistan)	3.6
Korea	3.5
Yaku	3.2
Panthan (Pakistan)	3.0
Tribals (India)	3.0
Baloch (SE Iran)	2.9
Brahui (Pakistan)	2.9
Southern Han	2.8
Thais	2.5
Vietnamese	2.3

 

Kalash

A Kalash Man

Two Kalash women

The Kalash or Kalasha, are an ethnic group of the Hindu Kush mountain range, residing in the Chitral district of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. They speak the Kalash language, a member of the Dardic family of Indo-Aryan Languages.

The culture of Kalash people is unique and differs drastically from the various ethnic groups surrounding them. They are polytheists and nature plays a highly significant and spiritual role in their daily life. As part of their religious tradition, sacrifices are offered and festivals held to give thanks for the abundant resources of their three valleys. Kalash mythology and folklore has been compared to that of ancient Greece, but they are much closer to Indo-Iranian (Vedic and pre-Zoroastrian) traditions

Genetic Origin: Some in the academic community have speculated that the Kalash might be from ancient Middle Eastern populations, an indigenous population from South Asia, or members of Alexander the Great's army. Though often overstated, instances of blond hair or light eyes are not uncommon.

In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Kalash people of Pakistan have among the highest rate of the newly-evolved ASPM haplogroup D, at 60% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele. While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase, perhaps imbuing cognitive or behavioral abilities related to non-tonal languages and alphabetical scripts.

The Kalash also have been shown to exhibit the exceedingly rare 19 allele value at autosomal marker D9S1120 at a frequency higher than the majority of other world populations which do have it.

Firasat et al. (2006) conclude that the Kalash lack typical Greek haplogroups (e.g. haplogroup 21), On the other hand, a study by Qamar et al. (2002) found that even though "no support for a Greek origin of their Y chromosomes was found" in the Kalash, Greek y-chromosome admixture could be as high as 20% to 40%. Considering the apparent absence of haplogroup 21 in the local population, one of the possibilities suggested was because of genetic drift. On the basis of Y chromosome allele frequency, some researchers describe the exact Greek contribution to Kalash as unclear.

Another study with Qasim Ayub, and S. Qasim Mehdi, and led by Quintana-Murci claims that "the western Eurasian presence in the Kalash population reaches a frequency of 100%, the most prevalent [mtDNA] haplogroup being U4, (pre-HV)1, U2e, and J2," and that they show "no detectable East or South Asian lineages. The outlying genetic position is seen in all analyses. Moreover, although this population is composed of western Eurasian lineages, the most prevalent ... are rare or absent in the surrounding populations and usually characterize populations from Eastern Europe, the Middle East and the Caucasus... All these observations bear witness to the strong effects of genetic drift of the Kalash population... However, a western Eurasian origin for this population is likely, in view of their maternal lineages, which can ultimately be traced back to the Middle East".

The estimates by Qamar et al. of Greek admixture has been dismissed by Toomas Kivisild et al. (2003): “some admixture models and programs that exist are not always adequate and realistic estimators of gene flow between populations ... this is particularly the case when markers are used that do not have enough restrictive power to determine the source populations ... or when there are more than two parental populations. In that case, a simplistic model using two parental populations would show a bias towards overestimating admixture”.

The study came to the conclusion that the Pakistani Kalash population estimate by (Qamar et al. 2002) “is unrealistic and is likely also driven by the low marker resolution that pooled southern and western Asian–specific Y-chromosome haplogroup H together with European-specific haplogroup I, into an uninformative polyphyletic cluster 2”.

A genetic study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics by Sengupta et al. (2006), found the Kalash to comprise high frequencies of Haplogroup L3 (25%), R1a (20%), H1* (20%), Haplogroup G2a (20%), R* (5%), J2a and J2b2 at (5%) each. Haplogroup L originates from prehistoric South Asia.

A study by Rosenberg et al. (2006) employing genetic testing among the Kalash population concluded that they are, in fact, a distinct (and perhaps aboriginal) population with only minor contributions from outside peoples. In one cluster analysis with (K = 7), the Kalash formed one cluster, the others being Africans, Europeans/Middle Easterners/South Asians, East Asians, Melanesians, and Native Americans.

In the recent study: "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation (2008)", geneticists using more than 650,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) samples from the Human Genome Diversity Panel, found deep rooted lineages that could be distinguished in the Kalash. The results showed them not only to be distinct, but perfectly clustered within the Central/South Asian populations at (K = 7). The study also showed the Kalash to be a separated group, with having no membership within European populations.

 

Silk Road

The southern route is mainly a single route running from China through northern India, the Turkestan–Khorasan region, Mesopotamia, and into Anatolia, with southward spurs enabling the journey to be completed by sea from various points. It starts out south through the Sichuan Basin in China. Crossing the high mountains into northeast India, probably via the Ancient tea route, it continues west along the Brahmaputra and Ganges river plains, possibly joining the Grand Trunk Road west of Varanasi. Then it passes through northern Pakistan, over the Hindu Kush mountains, and into Afghanistan, rejoining the northern route briefly near Merv. From there it follows a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant, where Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy, and land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa.

Another branch road traveled from Herat through Susa to Charax Spasinu at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to Petra and on to Alexandria and other eastern Mediterranean ports from where ships carried the cargoes to Rome.

Sea Routes: As much as fourteen hundred years ago, during China's Eastern Han Dynasty, a sea route, although not part of the formal Silk Route, led from the mouth of the Red River near modern Hanoi, through the Malacca Straits to Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka and India, and then on to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea kingdom of Axum and eventual Roman ports. From ports on the Red Sea goods, including silks, were transported overland to the Nile and then to Alexandria from where they were shipped to Rome, Constantinople and other Mediterranean ports.

Another branch of these sea routes led down the East African coast called "Azania" by the Greeks and Romans in the 1st century AD as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (and, very probably, 澤散 Zesan in the 3rd century by the Chinese), at least as far as the port known to the Romans as "Rhapta," which was probably located in the delta of the Rufiji River in modern Tanzania.

The Silk Road extends from southern China to present day Brunei, Thailand, Malacca, Ceylon, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Iran and Iraq. In Europe it extends from Israel, Lebanon (Collectively, the Levant), Egypt, and Italy (Historically Venice) in the Mediterranean Sea to other European ports or caravan routes such as the great Hanseatic League fairs via the Spanish road and other Alpine routes.

This water route in some sources is called the Indian Ocean Maritime System.

 

 

HLA-B58 (B58)

HLA-B*5801 is involved in allopurinol sensitive drug induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Allopurinol is a frequent cause of severe cutaneous adverse reactions, including drug-hypersensitivity syndrome, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis (SJS/TEN). The association with allopurinol sensitivity in JSJ/TEN was extremely strong in Asia, and somewhat less associated in Europeans.

In East Asians the carbamazepine and phenytoin induced syndrome is strongly associated with (B*1502 allele of HLA-B). A study in Europe suggested that the gene-marker is only relevant for East Asians. Based on the Asian findings similar studies in Europe were performed, sixty-one percent of allopurinol-induced SJS/TEN carried the HLA-B58 (B*5801 allele - Phenotype frequency in Europeans is typically 3%), indicating that while the risk alleles differ between ethnicities, the HLA-B locus is strongly associated or closely linked to a strongly associated gene.

 

HLA B*5801 Frequencies

Population	freq (%)
India Khandesh Pawra	15.0
Taiwan Hakka	10.9
India West Bhils	9.0
China South Han	8.9
China Inner Mongolia	8.8
India North Delhi	8.8
Thailand Northeast	8.4
Thailand	7.7
India Mumbai Marathas	7.4
India Andhra Pradesh Golla	7.2
India New Delhi	6.8
Oman	6.8
Russia Tuva (2)	6.7
South Korea (3)	6.5
Taiwan Siraya	5.9
India North Hindus	5.8
Singapore Riau Malay	5.0
Saudi Arabia Guraiat and Hail	4.6
Iran Baloch	4.0
Taiwan Pazeh	3.6
India West Coast Parsis	3.0
China North Han	2.9
China Yunnan Nu	1.9
China Tibet Autonomous Region Tibetans	1.6
Jordan Amman	1.4

 

 

HLA-DR3

HLA-DR3 is composed to the HLA-DR17 and HLA-DR18 split 'antigens' serotypes. DR3 is a component gene-allele of the AH8.1 haplotype in Northern and Western Europeans. Genes between B8 and DR3 on this haplotype are frequently associated with autoimmune disease.

Disease Associations

By serotype: HLA-DR3 is associated with early-age onset myasthenia gravis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis (along with DR5), primary sclerosing cholangitis, and opportunistic infections in AIDS, but lowered risk for cancers.

By haplotypes: DR3 and/or DQ2 is associated with Moreen's ulceration, "bout onset" multiple sclerosis, Grave's diseaseand systemic lupus erythematosus

DR3-DQ2 linkage is associated with coeliac disease, dermatitis herpetiformis, juvenile diabetes. DR3-DR2 is the serological marker for HLA-DQ2.5cis isoform. Although it cannot identify the alpha ".5" chain of HLA DQ, DQA1*0501 gene is almost always found within the DR3-DQ2 haplotype Eurasia (however is older studies DQA1*0505 is commonly confused with DQA1*0501)

 

 

HLA-DQ2

HLA-DQ2 (DQ2) is a serotype group within HLA-DQ (DQ) serotyping system. HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQB1*02 are almost synonymous in meaning. DQ2 β-chains combine with α-chains, encoded by genetically linked HLA-DQA1 alleles, to form the cis-haplotype isoforms. These isoforms, nicknamed DQ2.2 and DQ2.5, are also encoded by the DQA1*0201 and DQA1*0501 genes, respectively.

DQ2 is most common in Western Europe, North and West Africa. Highest frequencies are observed in parts of Spain and Ireland, this distribution correlates with the frequency of two of the most prevalent autoimmune diseases. There is also a increase in DQB1*0201 in Central Asia, peaking in Kazakhstan and declining slowly east to west into China and finally Southeast Asia. DQA1*0501 : DQB1*0201. DQ2.5 is one of the most predisposing factors for autoimmune disease.

 

DQA1-B1 Haplotypes

	Subtype	DQA1	DQB1
DQ2	2.5	0501	0201
	2.2	0201	0202
	2.3	0302	0202

DQ2.5: DQ2.5 and the linked DR3 are associated with probably the greatest frequency of autoimmune occurrence relative to any other haplotypes. The haplotype is positively associated with coeliac disease, dermatitis herpetiformis, juvenile diabetes, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), Sjögren's syndrome, and autoimmune hepatitis (although significant proportion of the risk is secondary to coeliac disease). DR3 and/or DQ2.5 are linked to the following diseases: Moreen's ulceration, "bout onset" multiple sclerosis, Grave's disease and systemic lupus erythematosus.

DQ2.2: the haplotype is linked to DR7. A small percentage of coeliac disease are associated with this haplotype, and some disease causing gliadins are presented by DQ2.2. The haplotype is found at high frequencies in the Mediterranean and West Africa. The Eurasian geographic distribution of DQ2.2 is slightly greater than DQ2.5. Compared to DQ2.5, the freqeuncy in Sardinia is low, but in Iberia it is high reaching a maximum frequency of ~30% in Northern Iberia, and half that in the British Ilses. It extends along the Mediterranean and Africa at relatively high frequency and is found in high frequencies in some Central Asian, Mongolians, and Han Chinese. It does not appear to have an indigenous presence in the West Pacific Rim or the New World and DQ2.2 presence in Southeast Asia and Indonesia is likely the result of gene flow from India and China in post-neolithic times. The haplotype shows considerable diversity in Africa and this has translated to Iberia with 2 addition haplotypes, DQA1*0303:DQB1*0202 and DR7:DQA1*0201:DQB1*0303. The expansion of DQ2.2 into Europe appears to have been slightly later or biased by some constriction between Iberia and the rest of the continent.

DQ2.3: It is genetically linked to DR7. By serology DR7-DQ2 cannot discriminate DQ2.2 from DQ2.3 haplotypes, and therefore DQA1 typing is required.

 

HLA Gene Frenquencies from the Origin of Minnan and Hakka, the So-Called "Taiwanese", Inferred by HLA Study by M. Lin, et al.

	HLA	Minnan	Hakka
DR3-DQ2	DQB1*02	8.8	10.6
	DRB1*03	7.4	8.6
DQ8	DQB1*0302c	19.4	7.6
	DQB1*0302d	7.4	7.6

*0301c:0311-012/04/09/10, *0302d:0302/05/07-08

 

* Transcomplementation of HLA DQA1-DQB1 in DR3/DR4 and DR3/DR9 Heterozygotes and IDDM in Taiwanese families by L M Chuang, et al.

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To study the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQ heterodimers in the susceptible DR haplotypes for patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) in Taiwan. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Extended class II HLA haplotypes were studied in 57 unrelated IDDM patients, 31 simplex IDDM families, and 105 unrelated control subjects recruited from the same area in Taiwan. Class II HLA genotyping was based on PCR-SSO DNA typing techniques. Extended class II HLA haplotypes were deduced unequivocally by the Taiwanese pedigree studies. RESULTS: DR3/DR3, DR3/DR4, and DR3/DR9 genotypes were strongly associated with IDDM susceptibility in this population. In addition to the reported DR3/DR4 in Caucasians, the heterozygotic effect of DR3/DR9 for IDDM was remarkable in the Taiwanese population. Extended HLA haplotypes studies revealed that DRB1*0301/DQA1*0501/DQB1*0201, DRB1*0405/DQA1*0301/DQB1*0302, and DRB1*0405/DQA1*0301/DQB1*0401 were the susceptible haplotypes in this population. There were several hypothetical ways to produce susceptible HLA-DQ heterodimers to explain the susceptibility carried by DR3/DR4 and DR3/DR9 genotypes. Among all DR4 subtypes, only DRB1*0405 was associated with the increased risk of IDDM. CONCLUSIONS: These data strongly suggest that the HLA-DR-associated IDDM susceptibility is most likely explained by the formation of the susceptible DQ heterodimers encoded by the DQA1/DQB1 either in cis or in trans.

HLA DR3-DQ2 Frequencies in Asia: Based on frequencies in Central and East Asia, DR3-DQ2 appears to have spread eastward recently. Of particular interest to the West African/Central Asian comparison, not only is DQ3-DQ2.5 elevated in both places, but a linked HLA A-B haplotype, A33-B58, is found in West Africans and both the A33 and B58 alleles show more allelic and haplotype diversity in West Africa. This similarity would be remarkable if this haplotype came with migrations 50,000 to 130,000 years ago, since considerable equilibration and long range migrations are expected over this time frame. Ironically, there is no convincing route of travel between West Africa and Central Asia suggested by gene frequencies in the peoples between the two. This recent migation hypothesis is supported by HLA-A36 which shows a similar African/Central Asian bimodal distribution. One population that might have been related to this migration are non-caucasians of northern Africa.

DR3-DQ2 is notably higher in W. Mongolia, Kazakhstan and W. China. One eastern haplotype is "A33-B58" and has some punctuated distribution in Western Europe at relatively low levels, and is also in extreme disequilibrium where it is found, elsewhere. In Thailand it is elevated, particularly in the Thai Chinese, but in the south and most parts of Indonesia its frequency is zero. Elevated DR3-DQ2 levels in the Muong suggest a similar North to South spread.

DR3-DQ2 presence in the Koreans and lack thereof in the Japanese suggest a recent spread into Western Pacific Rim of Asia. By HLA, Y chromosome, or mitochondrial DNA the Japanese are about 60-85% of post-Jōmon period Korean origin, and the level of DR3-DQ2 in Japanese is about 1/10th that of Koreans suggesting that DR3-DQ2 did not spread in the Yayoi and that it spread recently with Mongol spread in Eastern Asia, it is rare both east and south of China (except in regions with strong historic migrations of Chinese), rare in Indigenous Austronesians, and isolated Indigeonous American groups.

The Importance of the Estimates: Currently, in assessing diseases like coeliac disease a definite diagnosis is often not possible and statistical considerations are relied upon. The knowledge of frequencies in populations, particularly among ancestors of immigrants can aid patient and physician as to the potential risks. An example, one publication states that the western regions of Ireland have the highest coeliac disease rate in the world. Plotting the frequency of DQ2.5 from any part of Western Europe to the Irish one sees the frequency gradient progressing toward the north and west of Ireland; therefore, a high rate of coeliac disease is not unexpected in Western Ireland. People with many common ancestors from Ireland share similar risks of disease.

In the case of juvenile diabetes a clear distinction of DR3-DQ2 from DR7-DQ2 is necessary because both DR3 and DQ2 confer risk of disease. And DR3-DQ2/DR4-DQ8 individuals who have type 1 diabetes (late onset) are often mistaken for type-2 diabetes.

 

DR3 and DQ2.5 Levels in Asians (%)

Reference	DR17	DRB1	Haplo.	Estimated
Population	(DR3)	0301	DR3DQ2	DQ2.5
Kazakh	13.1			13.1
Uygar (China)	14.0		12.6	12.6
Tsaatan (Mongolia)	12.5			12.5
Khalka (Mongolia)	9.0		11.5	11.5
Australo (N.S.Wales)			11.4	11.4
Iranian	10.0		10.0	10.0
Muong (Viet Nam)	12.7		9.8	9.8
Oold (Mongolia)			8.7	8.7
Jing (China)			8.1	8.1
N.W. Han (China)	7.6		7.6	7.6
Mansi (Russia)		7.4	7.4	7.4
N.India	7.4		7.4	7.4
Iran (Yadz)	5.4		5.4	5.4
Hanoi (Viet Nam)	4.4		4.0	4.0
Buryat (Siberia)		4.0	4.0	4.0
Shangdong (China)			3.6	3.6
Korean		2.9	2.9	2.9
Nusa Ten. (Indonesia)		2.4	2.4	2.4
Ulchi		1.4	1.4	1.4
Ryūkyū (Japan)	0.0		0.0	0.0
Japanese		0.7	0.3	0.3
Ainu (Japan)		0.0	0.0	0.0
Ket (Russia)	0.0		0.0	0.0
Ngasan (Siberia)	0.0		0.0	0.0
Negidal (Siberia)		0.0	0.0	0.0
Molacca (Indonesia)		0.0	0.0	0.0

The Kazakhs (also spelled Kazaks, Qazaqs) are a Turkic people of the northern parts of Central Asia (largely Kazakhstan, but also found in parts of Uzbekistan, China, Russia, and Mongolia).

Kazakhs are descendants of Turkic tribes (Kipchaks and Naimans, Cumans, Nogais, Qarluqs, Kankalis), Mongol groups (Kiyat, Kerait, Onggirat, Argyns, Manghud, Jalayir, Dughlat, etc.), Indo-Iranian tribes (Wusun, Sarmatians, Sacae, Scythians, etc.) and Huns which populated the territory between Siberia and the Black Sea and remained in Central Asia when the Turkic and Mongolic groups started to invade and conquer the area between the fifth and thirteenth centuries AD.

The Uyghur (維吾爾) are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today Chinese Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China.

Historically the term "Uyghur" was applied to a group of Turkic-speaking tribes that lived around the Altay Mountains. Along with the Göktürks (Kokturks), the Uyghurs were the enduring Turkic peoples living in Central Asia. The earliest use of the term "Uyghur" (Weihu) was not during the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 AD). At that time, the Uyghur were part of the Gaoche (English: "High Wheels"), a group of Turkic tribes, which Chinese later called Tele people, from the Turkic word, "tele" the "Nine-Family Tele" association, i.e., Tokuz-Oguzes) for "wheelwagon". This group included tribes such as Syr-Tardush, Basmyl, Oguz, Khazar , Alans, Kyrgyz, Tuva and Yakut from the Lake Baikal Region.

The forebears of the Tele were descended from the Xiongnu. According to Chinese Turkic scholars Ma Changshou and Cen Zhongmian, the Chinese word Tiele originates from the Turkic word "Türkler" (Turks), which is a plural form of "Türk" (Turk) and the Chinese word "Tujue" comes from the Turkic word "Türküt" which is a singular form of Türk. The origin of the Gaoche can be traced back to the Dingling peoples of about BC 200 to 200 AD, contemporary with the Chinese Han Dynasty

The Iranian peoples are an ethnic and linguistic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly on the Iranian plateau and beyond in central, southern, and southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe. As a group of people, they are predominantly defined along linguistic lines as speaking the Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family. They are spread across the Iranian plateau, stretching from the Hindu Kush to central Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf - a region that is sometimes termed Greater Iran. Speakers of Iranian languages, however, were once found throughout Eurasia, from the Balkans to western China. As Iranian people are not confined to the borders of the current state of Iran, the term Iranic peoples is sometimes used to avoid confusion with the citizens of Iran.

The series of ethnic groups which comprise the Iranian people are traced to a branch of the ancient Indo-European Aryans known as the Iranians or Proto-Iranians. Archaeological finds in Russia, Central Asia and the Middle East have elucidated some scant information about the way of life of these early people. The Iranian people have played an important role throughout history: the Achaemenid Persians established one of the world's first multi-national states and the Scythian-Sarmatian nomads dominated the vast expanses of the Eurasian steppe for centuries with a group of Sarmatian warrior women possibly being the inspiration for the Greek legend of the Amazons. In addition, the various religions of the Iranian people, including Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, are believed by some scholars to be important early philosophical influences on Judeo-Christianity. Early Iranian tribes are the ancestors of many modern Iranian peoples.

Frequencies in Europe: In identifying DR3-DQ2 studies of DR3 and DQ8 frequencies, when DQ2.5 frequencies are not clear, are helpful. DQ8 is helpful because of the strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) of the "super B8" haplotype (HLA A1-B8-DR3-DQ2). Unclear genetic information has come about because of false genotyping assumptions in older studies. DQB1*0201 may be available, but most often it is given incorrectly (DQB1*0201 = DQB1*0201 + DQB1*0202 + DQB1*0203). DQA1*0501 is often given incorrectly (DQB1*0501 = DQB1*0501 + DQB1*0505). These typing errors were not fully recognized until 2000. B8 freqeuncies are less useful in Southern and Eastern Europe, and there is no B allele that is in strong LD with DR3-DQ2. Therefore, as one moves east and southward B8 less predictive and DRB1*03 and DQB1*0201 (if DQB1*0202 is also given) must be relied upon.

HLA-B8 (B8) is an HLA-B serotype. It coined the "Super B8" haplotype, also called the ancestral European haplotype because of its common occurrence in Europe, particular the Isles and Scandinavia. B8 is a component gene-allele of the AH8.1 haplotype in Northern and Western Europeans. Genes between B8 and DR3 on this haplotype are frequently associated with autoimmune disease.

HLA B*0801 Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
Ireland South	18.2
Ireland Northern	16.2
Belgium	12.6
Oman	11.0
Spain Basque Gipuzkoa Province	9.1
Finland	8.9
France South East	8.9
Scotland Orkney	8.8
Morocco Nador Metalsa Class I	8.7
India New Delhi	8.3
Spain Eastern Andalusia Gipsy	8.1
Madeira	7.8
Iran Baloch	7.6
Romanian	7.3
Saudi Arabia Guraiat and Hail	7.1
Georgia Svaneti Svans	6.9
India Andhra Pradesh Golla	6.7
Portugal North	6.5
Azores Santa Maria and Sao Miguel	6.4
Italy Bergamo	5.3
Czech Republic	5.2
Spain Catalonia Girona	4.6
Tunisia	4.6
Bulgaria Gipsy	4.5
Tunisia Tunis	4.5
Portugal Centre	4.0
Jordan Amman	3.8
Indig. Australian, Cape York Peninsula	3.5
Georgia Tibilisi Kurds	3.4
India North Hindus	2.9
Indig. Australian, Groote Eylandt	2.0
Portugal South	2.0
Georgia Tibilisi Georgians	1.9
Azores Central Islands	1.8
Bulgaria	1.8
Croatia	1.7
India North Delhi	1.6
China North Han	1.4
India West Coast Parsis	1.0
Taiwan Siraya	1.0

European DR3-DQ2 is ancestrally derived from Africa, probably from Southwestern Europe or the Levant (in which DQ2.5 may have undergone negative, coeliac disease, selection during the holocene). Since the last glacial maximum there appears to be two sources of DR3-DQ2. The first, propagating "super b8" is from Iberia into much of western and central Europe. The second, propagating A30-B18-DR3-DQ2, is from Africa into Sardinia, Iberia, France and Italy.

Anti-node in Western Europe. DR3-DQ2 was probably the predominant HLA haplotype in the early holocene Western and Central Europe, archaeological studies of France, particularly of the Paris Basin region indicate a cultural shift that occurs as a result of the neolithic revolution. In this region of France DR3-DQ2 specifically associated with super-B8 forms an anti-node of frequencies, whereas HLA types more common in Italy, Greece and the middle east are more common within this region of France. Other haplotypes indicate this introgression was significant over and the primary wheat farming regions of Europe.

Multiple Nodes. Because of the central location of the anti-node, the center of expansion of DR3-DQ2 with the recolonization of western Europe after the last glacial maximum has been obscured. However, the frequency is still high within the Basque of NE Spain, including some Super-B8 haplotype. The highest frequency of this node is in Western Ireland. Despite its high frequency Ireland is not likely the source of the haplotype in European, but a region that has been least disturbed by the negative selection of wheat culture and migrations. Much of Ireland was covered in glacial ice in the late paleolithic and few exploitable resources. Colonization started about 10500 years ago, whereas neolithization started about 6500 years ago and was dominated by cattle culture with some wheat and minor barley cultivation. The paleontology of Europe during the last glacial maximum suggests that the most likely places of origin are NE Iberia, Southern France and new ice-core evidence suggests that final spread northward probably occurred after Younger Dryas.

 

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* Intergenic DNA Sequences from the Human X Chromosome Reveal High Rates of Global Gene Flow by Murray P Cox, et al.

Geographic Representation of Population Migration Rates Nm

 

 

HLA-A29

HLA-A29 (A29): this group currently is dominated by A*2902. A29 and A*29 are almost synonymous in meaning. A29 is a sister serotype of A30, A31, A32, A33, and A74.

A29 is more common in Western Africa and Southwestern Europe (the Iberian Peninsula).

 

HLA A*2902 Frequencies

Study population	Freq.   (%)
Spain Pas Valley	13.5
Spain Basque Gipuzkoa Pro…	12.5
Spain Catalonia Girona	9.3
Spain Ibizans	9.3
Tunisia Ghannouch	9.1
Saudi Arabia	8.7
Spain Murcia	8.3
Spain Minorca	8.2
Spain Basque Arratia Vall…	8.0
Spain North Cabuernigo	7.7
Portugal Centre	7.0
Spain Eastern Andalusia	6.9
France Corsica	6.0
Scotland Orkney	6.0
Spain North Cantabrian	6.0
England Liverpool	5.2
France South East	5.1
Ireland Northern	4.9
Mongolia Hoton	4.8
Mongolia Khoton Tarialan	4.8
Pakistan Karachi Parsi	4.4
Morocco 'berber' Nador Me…	4.1
Israeli Jews	3.9
India Jalpaiguri Toto	3.8
Belgium	3.7
Italy	3.6
Wales	3.6
Macedonia (4)	3.0
China Yunnan Han (2)	2.9
Greece (3)	2.9
India North Delhi	2.7
Taiwan Hakka	2.7
India Kerala Hindu Nair	2.4
Israel Gaza Palestinians	2.4
German Essen	2.0
India West Coast Parsis	2.0
Israel Arab Druse	2.0
Romanian	1.9
Pakistan Brahui	1.7
Thailand Northeast	1.6
China Harbin Man	1.5
Pakistan Pathan	1.5
Turkey	1.3
Czech Republic	1.4
Sweden Stockholm	1.4
Oman	1.3
Russia Nenets	1.2

 

 

HLA-B59

HLA-B59 (B59) is a hybrid between B*55 and B*51. B59 is more common in Japan, Korea, N. China and Mongolia.

 

HLA B*5901 Frequencies

Population	Freq (%)
Okinawan (USA Hawaii)	6.3
Japan (2)	2.7
Tarialan Khoton (Mongolia)	2.4
South Korea (3)	2.1
Gipuscoa Basque (Spain)	2.0
Japan Central	1.8
Casablanca (Morocco)	1.8
Hyogo (Japan)	1.6
N. Korean (Harbin,China)	1.0
Manchu (Harbin, China)	0.6
Naxi (Yunnan, China)	0.6
Girona (Catalonia,Spain)	0.6
Inner Mongolia (China)	0.5
Khalkha (Mongolia)	0.5
Shanghai (China)	0.3
Essen (German )	0.3
Southern Han (China)	0.2
Shij. Tian. (Beijing, China)	0.1
Hakka (Taiwan)	0.1

 

 

HLA-B67

HLA-B67 (B67) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the more common HLA-B*67 gene products. B67 is region specific recombinant haplotype formed by the gene conversion of B*39, an allele common along the Northwest Pacific Rim (Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Coastal Siberia), and B7, B22, or B27.

 

HLA B*6701 Frequencies

Population	Freq (%)
Osaka Region (Japan)	2.6
Hakka (Taiwan)	1.8
Japan (5)	1.7
Harbin Man (China)	1.7
Beijing (China)	1.5
Linqu (Shandong, China)	1.1
Siraya (Taiwan)	1.0
Portugal South	1.0
Oold (Mongolia)	1.0
American Samoa	1.0
Pazeh (Taiwan)	0.9
South Korea (3)	0.9
N. Korean (Harbin,China)	0.8
Arratia Basque (Spain)	0.6
Tarialan Khoton (Mongolia)	0.6
Shanghai (China)	0.6
Yunnan Han (China)	0.5
Turkey	0.4
Southern Han (China)	0.4
Tuva (Russia)	0.3
Chinese (Hong Kong, China)	0.1

 

 

* Genetic Landscape of Eurasia Viewed from Large Allele Frequency Differences by Hui Li, et al.

Genetic Structure of Eurasian Populations

 

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HLA-A11

HLA-A11 (A11) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A "A" serotype group. This group currently is dominated by A*1101. A11 and A*11 are almost synonymous in meaning.

A11 is more common in East Asia than elsewhere, it is part of a several long haplotypes that appear to have been frequent in the ancient peoples of Asia.

In infectious Disease: Associations have been observed between A11 and familial otosclerosis, pulmonary tuberculosis, leprosy, and cytomegalovirus infection with epilepsy. These and other studies suggest an involvement between A11 and secondary effects of certain herpes virus infections. A11 was also found increase in supraglottic cancer with poor 3 year survival. In osteosarcoma A11 was found elevated.

There is a strong association between anti-depressant induced hepatitis and HLA-A11. In autoimmune hepatitis, A11 has a synergistic effect, acting together with DR4 and DR3 to increase the odds of disease to over 300.

A11 is also part of a haplotype A11-Cw4-B35-DR1-DQ1 that is a second factor in the rapid progression of HIV. The involvement of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma primaruily as a result of Epstein-Barr virus reinfection does not appear to be a cause in this acceleration.

Epstein-Barr Virus Anomaly: There are at least a couple of forms of lymphoproliferative diseases that appear to arise from unresolved Epstein-Barr virus infection. Examination of the virus itself has lead to the discovery of strains that can all but turn off the A11-mediated class I response to the virus in A11 enriched peoples (see tables below). This ability to turn off the immune system and for the virus to remain active is a factor in carcinogenesis. Early studies of A serotypes revealed and association of A11 with Hodgkin's lymphoma and recent studies have shown a complex involvement of Epstein-Barr virus infection as a consequence of low A11 control over infection.

Burkitt's lymphoma eventually lead to the discovery of the virus, however this disease is more evident in Africa. An involvement in cytotoxic T-lymphocytes down-regulation in Burkitt's lymphoma was subsequently discovered, More recent studies show A11 is down-regulated, and that other genetic defects are a likely cause. The ability to present EB virus antigens revealed a defect in the process after antigen process but before TAP1 involvement. Other studies indicated that peptides bind A11 in delivery to the cell surface for CTL screening, but fall off, and are destroyed intracellularly. However, A3 and A11 can process and load antigens even when proteosome activity is diminished suggesting an alternative mechanism for loading which may benefit in recovery from some disease but impair recovery of others.

It appears that these and other viruses have learned to exploit some defect in the region surrounding A11 that allows the near complete shut-down of gene expression. Oddly, in Africa A11 is at very low frequencies, and homozygotes are rare, suggesting that other genetic susceptibilities may exist that steer the virus toward Burkitt's lymphoma.

 

HLA A*1101 Frequencies

Population	Freq.  (%)
Papua New Guinea Madang	63.6
PNG West Schrader Ranges	55.0
Taiwan Hakka	40.0
PNG Wosera	38.5
ChinaYunnan Naxi	38.0
Taiwan Tao	36.0
China Guangxi Maonan	35.2
China Guangzhou	33.8
Taiwan Minnan (1)	30.9
Thailand	29.9
China Wuhan	29.3
Taiwan Pazeh	28.2
China South Han	27.7
Thailand Northeast	27.1
Singapore Chinese	26.5
Taiwanese of Middle China…	26.2
PNG New Britain Rabaul	26.0
Pakistan Brahui	25.2
Australia Indig. Groote E…	24.0
India New Delhi	23.5
Pakistan Baloch	22.2
Taiwan Thao	21.7
China, Shandong, Linqu Co…	20.4
Pakistan Sindhi	19.6
Australia Indig. Cape Yor…	18.0
PNG Karimui Plateau	17.9
Singapore Riau Malay	17.7
Taiwan Siraya	17.6
China Beijing	16.4
Pakistan Pathan	16.3
China Inner Mongolia	16.2
American Samoa	16.0
Spain Basque Arratia Vall…	16.0
China Qinghai Hui	15.9
Russia Murmansk Saomi	14.0
Singapore Javanese Indone…	14.0
New Caledonia	13.1
Japan Aichi	12.7
Georgia Svaneti Svans	12.5
India North Hindus	12.5
Pakistan Burusho	12.5
China Yunnan Han (2)	12.3
India Mumbai Marathas	12.3
China Harbin N. Korean	12.1
India Andhra Pradesh Goll…	11.9
Taiwan Saisiat	11.8
Oman	11.4
Israel Arab Druse	11.0
South Korea (3)	10.8
Taiwan Tsou	10.8
Mongolia Khoton Tarialan	10.7
Sri Lanka Colombo Sinhale…	10.4
Georgia Tibilisi Kurds	10.0
Mongolia Khalkha	10.0
Australia Indig. Kimberly	9.7
India North Delhi	9.4
Japan Hyogo	9.4
Spain North Cabuernigo	8.9
Saudi Arabia	8.7
Russia Tuva (2)	8.7
Spain North Cantabrian	8.4
Japan Central	8.2
Romanian	8.2
Greece North	8.0
Ireland Northern	8.0
Taiwan Atayal	8.0
Jordan Amman	7.9
Italy North (1)	7.7
Italy Sardinia (3)	7.7
Australia Indig. Yuendumu	7.6
Mongolia Tsaatan	7.6
Bulgaria	7.3
Taiwan Taroko	7.3
Philippines Ivatan	7.0
Portugal Centre (2)	6.8
Australia New South Wales	6.7
Morocco	6.7
Wales	6.6
Serbia	6.5
Georgia Tibilisi Georgian…	6.2
Ireland South	6.2
Algeria(1)	6.2
Brazil	6.1
Spain Basque Gipuzkoa Pro…	6.1
Turkey (2)	6.1
Russia Northwest	6.0
Portugal South pop2	5.9
England Newcastle	5.7
Italy North Pavia	5.6
Israeli Jews	5.4
Sweden Stockholm	5.1
Finland	5.0
Macedonia (4)	4.9
Italy Bergamo	4.8
Morocco Berber Nador Meta…	4.8

 

 

HLA-A26

HLA-A26 (A26) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group. The serotype is determined by the antibody recognition of α26 subset of HLA-A α-chains. This group currently is dominated by A*2601. A26 and A*26 are almost synonymous in meaning. A26 is a split antigen of the broad antigen serotype A10. A26 is a sister serotype of A25, A34, A43, and A66.

A26 is more common in West Pacific Rim (Taiwan to Hokkaido).

 

HLA A*2601 Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
Taiwan Taroko	21.8
Taiwan Bunun	19.3
Japan Ainu Hokkaido	17.0
Taiwan Rukai	14.0
USA Hawaii Okinawa	12.4
Georgia Tibilisi Kurds	11.7
Pakistan Baloch	10.3
Oman	10.2
Pakistan Burusho	9.8
Pakistan Karachi Parsi	8.3
China Beijing	8.2
Pakistan Sindhi	8.2
Japan Central	8.1
Pakistan Brahui	8.0
Taiwan Atayal	8.0
India New Delhi	7.6
Bulgaria	7.3
PNG New Britain Rabaul	7.3
Taiwan Hakka	6.4
Georgia Svaneti Svans	6.3
Pakistan Pathan	6.1
American Samoa	6.0
South Korea (3)	6.0
Israel Arab Druse	5.5
Croatia	5.3
Taiwan Saisiat	4.9
Taiwan Tsou	4.9
China Tibetan	4.7
China Qinghai Hui	4.5
Iran Baloch	4.5
Russia Tuva (2)	4.5
France South East	4.3
Portugal North	4.3
India Andhra Pradesh Goll…	4.0
Taiwan Paiwan	3.9
Romanian	3.8
Jordan Amman	3.5
Saudi Arabia Guraiat and …	3.5
China Inner Mongolia	3.4
Georgia Tibilisi Georgian…	3.3
Ireland South	3.0
Singapore Javanese Indone…	3.0
Taiwan Puyuma	3.0
Czech Republic	2.8
Taiwan Pazeh	2.7
PNG Madang	2.5
Singapore Chinese Han	2.3
Australia New South Wales	2.2
China Yunnan Lisu	2.2
China Guangzhou	2.0
Portugal South	2.0
Singapore Riau Malay	2.0
Taiwan Siraya	2.0
India North Hindus	1.9
Ireland Northern	1.8
India North Delhi	1.7
Pakistan Kalash	1.7
Taiwan Thao	1.7
China South Han	1.6
Mongolia Buriat	1.4
Thailand	1.4
New Caledonia	1.2
Finland	1.1
Ch. Guangdong Meizhou H…	1.0

 

 

HLA-A34

HLA-A34 (A34) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group. (For terminology help see: HLA-serotype tutorial)

A34 appears to have expanded from the Middle East, with linkage disequilibrium with B alleles into Austronesia, South Pacific, Philippines and as far north as Taiwan (where it is found in the Taiwan Ami, Yami tribal groups but rare in ethnic Chinese nor in Hong Kong Chinese).

A*3401 when found outside of Africa is primarily found in the South Asia, Austronesia and the South/Central part of the West Pacific Rim (WPR). It appears to have made it to Eastern Taiwan's indigenous tribes (Ami, Yami) but not more north of this region. It has not been detected in any sampling of Japan. Over most of the East Pacific Rim region were it is found it is limited to 1 or 2 common haplotypes in strong linkage disequilibrium. This indicates its presence in the WPR (West Pacific Rim) region is the result of recent migrations.

The A*3401 migration from Africa is supported by its presence in East Africa and South Africa and by current models of human migration, this allele was likely represented in the first wave of immigrants. However in areas were mixtures of these alleles are commonly found, Persian Gulf region and India, A*3401 is relatively uncommon, scarce, or absent. The exception is Saudi Arabia, in which A34 is at 2.8% and among Israeli Jews at 8.8%. Some reports that both A*3401 and A*3402 are in the region, but questionable whether these are perpetually maintained allele frequencies are simply recent migrants.

A*3402 is more frequently found in the west, it is found in Iberia and along the mediterranean, but its frequency is low, the exception may be in the Levant, but it is unclear whether this is A*3401 or A*3402.

A34-B Haplotypes: A34 is in strong linkage disequilibrium in many areas of the world, but particularly SE Asia and Oceania. The most prominent of these haplotypes is A34-Cw11(1)-B56. This haplotype is found from Western Australia to Taiwan to New Zealand indicating a recent genetic linkage between these peoples.

Another frequently found haplotype is the A34-B61 (A*3401:Cw*04:B*B4002) haplotype. This haplotype has a similar distribution as A34-B56.

These haplotypes indicate that long range/oversees migrations were taking place in Austronesias (late paleolithic) prehistory.

 

HLA A*3401 Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
Kimberly (Indig. Austr.)	68.1
Yuendumu (Indig. Austr.)	44.0
Groote Eylandt (Indig. Austr.)	32.0
Rabaul (New Britain, PNG)	30.2
West Schrader Ranges (PNG)	29.2
Cape York Penin. (Indig. Austr.)	29.1
Ami (Indig. Taiwan)	21.9
Goroka (E. Highlands, PNG)	20.5
New Caledonia	15.5
Madang (PNG)	13.6
Ivatan (N. Islands, Phlippines)	13.0
Wanigela (PNG)	12.7
American Samoa	10.0
Wosera (PNG)	9.0
Riau Malay (Singapore)	6.0
Karimui Plateau (PNG)	4.8
Puyuma (Indig. Taiwan)	4.0
Javanese (Singapore)	3.0
Spain Catalonia Girona	1.1
Thai (Singapore)	1.0
Paiwan (Indig. Taiwan)	1.0
Taiwan Hakka	0.9
Thailand	0.7
China South Han	0.5
India North Delhi	0.5
Chinese (Hong Kong)	0.3
Chinese (Singapore)	0.3

 

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Ancient DNA from Linzi (Yixi), Shandong Peninsula

* Molecular Genetic Analysis of Remains of a 2,000-year-old Human Population in China-and Its Relevance for the Origin of the Modern Japanese Population by H. Oota, et al. (1999)

Abstract: We extracted DNA from the human remains excavated from the Yixi site (approximately 2,000 years before the present) in the Shandong peninsula of China and, through PCR amplification, determined nucleotide sequences of their mitochondrial D-loop regions. Nucleotide diversity of the ancient Yixi people was similar to those of modern populations. Modern humans in Asia and the circum-Pacific region are divided into six radiation groups, on the basis of the phylogenetic network constructed by means of 414 mtDNA types from 1, 298 individuals. We compared the ancient Yixi people with the modern Asian and the circum-Pacific populations, using two indices: frequency distribution of the radiation groups and genetic distances among populations. Both revealed that the closest genetic relatedness is between the ancient Yixi people and the modern Taiwan Han Chinese. The Yixi people show closer genetic affinity with Mongolians, mainland Japanese, and Koreans than with Ainu and Ryukyu Japanese and less genetic resemblance with Jomon people and Yayoi people, their predecessors and contemporaries, respectively, in ancient Japan."

 

* Genetic Structure of a 2,500-Year-Old Human Population in China and Its Spatiotemporal Changes by Li Wang, et al. (2000)

Abstract: To examine temporal changes in population genetic structure, we compared the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of three populations that lived in the same location, Linzi, China, in different periods: 2,500 years ago (the Spring–Autumn era), 2,000 years ago (the Han era), and the present day. Two indices were used to compare the genetic differences: the frequency distributions of the radiating haplotype groups and the genetic distances among the populations. The results indicate that the genetic backgrounds of the three populations are distinct from each other. Inconsistent with the geographical distribution, the 2,500-year-old Linzi population showed greater genetic similarity to present-day European populations than to present-day east Asian populations. The 2,000-year-old Linzi population had features that were intermediate between the present-day European/2,500-year-old Linzi populations and the present-day east Asian populations.

Result: The smallest genetic distance for the present-day Linzi population was that from the Mongols, followed by those from mainland Japanese and Koreans. Surprisingly, the three smallest genetic distances for the 2,000-year-old Linzi population were from the present-day central Asian populations: the Kirghiz (Sary-Tash), followed by the Kazakh and the Uighurs. Even more surprisingly, the three smallest genetic distances for the 2,500-year-old Linzi population were from the Turkish, Icelander, and Finnish, rather than from the east Asian populations.

 

* Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of China: A Caveat About Inferences Drawn from Ancient DNA by Yong-Gang Yao, et al. (2003)

Abstract: The decipherment of the meager information provided by short fragments of ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is notoriously difficult but is regarded as a most promising way toward reconstructing the past from the genetic perspective. By haplogroup-specific hypervariable segment (HVS) motif search and matching or near-matching with available modern data sets, most of the ancient mtDNAs can be tentatively assigned to haplogroups, which are often subcontinent specific. Further typing for mtDNA haplogroup-diagnostic coding region polymorphisms, however, is indispensable for establishing the geographic/genetic affinities of ancient samples with less ambiguity. In the present study, we sequenced a fragment (982 bp) of the mtDNA control region in 76 Han individuals from Taian, Shandong, China, and we combined these data with previously reported samples from Zibo and Qingdao, Shandong. The reanalysis of two previously published ancient mtDNA population data sets from Linzi (same province) then indicates that the ancient populations had features in common with the modern populations from south China rather than any specific affinity to the European mtDNA pool. Our results highlight that ancient mtDNA data obtained under different sampling schemes and subject to potential contamination can easily create the impression of drastic spatiotemporal changes in the genetic structure of a regional population during the past few thousand years if inappropriate methods of data analysis are employed.

 

* Reanalysis of Eurasian Population History: Ancient DNA Evidence of Population Affinities by C.C. Bennett, F.A. Kaestle (2006)

Abstract: Mitochondrial hypervariable region I genetic data from ancient populations at two sites in Asia-Linzi in Shandong (northern China) and Egyin Gol in Mongolia-were reanalyzed to detect population affinities. Data from 51 modern populations were used to generate distance measures (F^sub ST^'s) to the two ancient populations. The tests first analyzed relationships at the regional level and then compiled the top regional matches for an overall comparison to the two probe populations. The reanalysis showed that the Egyin Gol and Linzi populations have clear distinctions in genetic affinity. The Egyin Gol population as a whole appears to bear close affinities with modern populations of northern East Asia. The Linzi population seems to have some genetic affinities with the West, as suggested by the original analysis, although the original attribution of "European-like" seems to be misleading. We suggest that the Linzi individuals are potentially related to early Iranians, who are thought to have been widespread in parts of Central Eurasia and the steppe regions in the first millennium B.C., although some significant admixture between a number of populations of varying origin cannot be ruled out. We also examine the effect of sequence length on this type of genetic data analysis and discuss the results of previous studies on the Linzi sample.

Results:

Table 4 contains the comparisons of the Linzi and Egyin Gol samples to East and Central Asia .... The top half of the Linzi list is dominated by Southeast Asians, southern Chinese, and Central Asians. The lower half is dominated by northern Asians (save for the lowland Kirghiz and Akha). It is not clear how and why both Southeast Asians (and southern Chinese) and Central Asians are similar to the Linzi population, although this is only a relative comparison within the region. However, there is some debate over the nature of ancient East Asian genetic history, so possibly there are issues here that have yet to be illuminated ....

Table 5 is the total comparison of modern populations to Linzi and Egyin Gol from a composite of the top matches from each region, .... As for the Linzi individuals, they seem to be most highly related to Near Easterners (Turks, Iranians, and Iraqis), Armenians, and Eastern Europeans (Slavs, Hungarians), although others, such as Catalans and Iraqis, are mixed in. The Icelanders are twelfth on this list. The high placement of the Vietnamese may be an anomaly, error, or some element of ancient genetic history that is not clear ....

 

* Video: Schythians or Huns?

 

Ancient Iranian peoples who settled Greater Iran in the 2nd millennium BC first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC. They remain dominant throughout Classical Antiquity in Scythia and Persia.The Iranian languages form a sub-branch of the Indo-Iranian sub-family, which is a branch of the family of Indo-European languages. Having descended from the Proto-Indo-Iranians, the Proto-Iranians separated from the Indo-Aryans around in the early 2nd millennium BC. The Proto-Iranians are traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia. The area between northern Afghanistan and the Aral Sea is hypothesized to have been the region where the Proto-Iranians first emerged, following the separation of Indo-Iranian tribes.By the 1st millennium BC, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau, while others such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, Cimmerians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Saka and Scythian tribes remained mainly in the south and spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang.

Countries which are geographically fully located within the Balkan peninsula:  Albania,  Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,  Greece,  Kosovo, Macedonia,  Montenegro. Countries which are partially located in the peninsula: Serbia, Croatia,  Slovenia, Romania,  Turkey.

The division of Proto-Iranian into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group is attested in the form of Avestan and Old Persian, the two oldest known Iranian languages.

 

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Punti-Hakka Clan Wars

Punti-Hakka Clan Wars or Hakka-Punti Clan Wars (土客械鬥) refers to battles or conflicts between the Hakka and the Punti in Guangdong (廣東), China, between 1855 and 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. The wars were particularly fierce in the area around Pearl River Delta, especially Taishan of Sze Yup. The war's estimated death toll was roughly a million, with many more fleeing for their lives.

Hakka literally means guest family, and Punti literally means original land. The Punti are also referred to by the dialect they speak, Cantonese. The basis of these bloody conflicts were the Punti's resentment against the Hakka that they were increasing dramatically in number, and encroaching on their land. From the Hakka’s point of view, they were marginalized, discriminated against, and had to farm left-over or unwanted, hilly land.

Background: When the Ming Dynasty was overthrown by the Qing Dynasty, Ming loyalists, notably Zheng Chenggong (also known as Koxinga), fled to Taiwan to raise troops in the hope of eventually retaking China for the Ming. The Qing emperor, in order to stymie these efforts, twice commanded all residents of the coastal areas of Guangdong and Fujian Provinces to move inland by 50 li, approximately 30 km, resulting in a large number of deaths amongst the Punti people. After the rebels in Taiwan were pacified, the Qing emperor rescinded these edicts.

However far fewer Punti people returned than expected, so the Qing emperor provided incentives to repopulate these areas. The most visible of those who responded were the Hakka people. For some time the Punti and Hakka lived together peacefully, the population of Guangdong Province soared, life became increasingly difficult and unrest broke out.

In 1851, the Taiping Rebellion, led by a Hakka Chinese, Hong Xiuquan, erupted in Guangxi Province and quickly spread throughout Southern China. The rebellion was finally suppressed in 1864. In 1854, during the rebellion, a local anti-Qing Triad took the opportunity and rebelled, attacking Heyuan and Foshan. This Red Turban Rebellion was finally suppressed in 1857.

Clan War: During the rebellion, the Hakka in the Pearl River Delta had helped the imperial army to suppress the rebellion; the imperial official decided to keep the area clear of rebellion participants and raided the Punti villages. This caused hostility between the Hakka and the Punti, and the Punti attacked Hakka villages in revenge.

Bloody battles raged, with both sides fortifying their villages with walls, and raising armies as best as they could. Of course, entire villages would be involved in the fighting, and all able-bodied men were called on to fight against the other side. For the Punti, money for armaments was forthcoming from their relatives in Hong Kong, and abroad.

The conflicts escalated into large-scale clan wars.

The clan war is related to the Chinese Diaspora in the 19th century. Some of those who lost in the clan wars were sold to Cuba and South America as coolies via Hong Kong and Macau, and some females were sold to Macau as prostitutes.

End of the War: The war reached devastating scales and large number of people died, fled, and were sold. Thousands of houses were destroyed.

Because the population of Punti outnumbered the Hakka's, the Hakka suffered more losses in the clan war. The Qing government implemented the strategy of segregation to cool the conflict, and the Hakka were relocated to Guangxi Province. After the clan war, the population share of Hakka in the Sze Yup area dropped to 3%.

The hostility between the Hakka and the Punti could be found also in overseas communities in the early 20th century.

Similar Conflicts in Taiwan: Hostility was also present in Taiwan; the Hoklo people from Fujian and the Hakkas from Guangdong frequently fought against each other. Although much alleviated, the hostility between the Hoklo and the Hakka is still present in the community of Taiwan.

 

 

The Battle of Changhsing

The Battle of Changhsing (26 November 1895), popularly known in Taiwan as the Battle of the Burning Village (火燒庄戰役) was the last set-piece battle during the Japanese invasion of Taiwan. It was fought by Hakka militia and armed civilians against the invading Imperial Japanese Army in Changhsing village (長興村). The battle earned its name from the fact that the entire village was burnt to the ground by the Japanese during their attempts to capture it from the Formosans.

Background: After the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki and the establishment of the Republic of Formosa, Chiu Feng-yang, a Hakka leader from Pingtung, called upon his supporters to form the so-called Liutui Hakka militias (六堆客家義軍). The militias were organized into six units, according to the villages where they were recruited, hence the name Liutui (六堆, six stacks). The militias first engaged the Japanese at Chiatung, and were defeated due to their poor training and weaponry. By the time the militia regrouped further to the south, the Republic of Formosa had collapsed in the wake of President Liu Yung-fu's flight to mainland China on 20 October 1895 and the capitulation of Tainan to the Japanese on 21 October. Seeing no hope of matching the Japanese in a fight in the open around Tainan, Chiu ordered a retreat to Changhsing village, Pingtung, where he planned to make a last stand.

The Battle: Soon after their arrival, the militias fortified the village and brought in supplies. When the Japanese arrived, they found that a stone wall and other strong defensive positions had been built around Changhsing, and that almost the entire population of the village were armed, most of them with primitive weapons. The Japanese attempted to storm the village, but were pushed back several times by the Formosans. Hakka villages in Taiwan at that time were often provided with elaborate fortifications, partly due to the perennial threat of raids by head-hunting aborigines, and a village might be surrounded by ditches and a wooden palisade, and perhaps also a wooden wall with towers and loopholes, which would be difficult to storm without artillery. After hours of fierce fighting but little gain, the Japanese commander resorted to a massive bombardment to set fire to the village, and was successful in his attempt. The defenses were broken up and vicious hand-to-hand fighting ensued. In the end, more than half of the defenders, including their leader, were either killed or incapacitated, and the village was burnt to the ground by the fire. The Japanese suffered 15 killed and 57 wounded.

Aftermath: The battle officially ended all formal resistance to the Japanese invasion, but sporadic insurgency continued on for several more years, ending only when the Japanese governor-general adopted a more flexible policy towards the local population. On the other hand, out of respect toward the defenders, the Japanese commander personally paid homage to the Formosan dead. In 1901, Governor-General Kodama Gentaro also paid homage at the Chung-Yi house, or the "House of the Loyal and Just Ones" (忠義亭), and ordered an annual commemoration to be held.

Several decades after the battle, Yu Youren, the then chairman of Control Yuan of Republic of China, visited the site of the battle and wrote a poem praising the Formosan resistance:

Original Text	Romanization	Translation
氣與河山壯 名爭日月光 煌煌民族史 照耀火燒庄	chi-yu-he-shan-chuang min-cheng-ri-yue-kuang hui-huang-min-tsu-shih chao-yao-huo-shao-chuang	Imposing as the rivers and mountains Bright as the Sun and the Moon The glorious history of our nation Shines on the Burning Village

A monument was dedicated in 1995 to the Formosans who fell in the battle.

 

1895 (video)

1895 (1895乙未) is a Taiwanese film based on the Japanese Invasion of Taiwan in 1895, with emphasis on the Hakka fighters and their families in the conflict. The film has a limited budget of sixty million New Taiwan Dollars, with roughly half of it provided by the Council for Hakka Affair of Executive Yuan. The film was released on November 7, 2008.

 

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Hakka Culture

Taipei County Hakka Museum

Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakkas have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine).

When Hakkas expanded into areas with pre-existing populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.

Unlike the majority of other Han Chinese women, Hakka women did not practice footbinding.

Hakka people built Tulou buildings which has been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

Martial Arts: The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist). Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practised by the Hakkas.

Hakka Kuen (客家拳) is a general term describing a variety of Chinese martial arts originating from the Hakka community of Southern China and is considered to be an important style within Southern Chinese Martial Arts.

The Hakka heartland is located in the inland part of Guangdong Province east of the Pearl River Delta. According to the Dragon style teacher Steve Martin, Hakka Kuen was influenced by the style that the legendary monk Gee Sim Sim See taught in Guangdong and the neighboring province of Fujian in the 1700s.

Regardless of the historical veracity of Gee Sim, the similarities between Hakka Kuen and the Fujian martial arts strongly suggests that the two are related. According to Leung Ting, the head of the WingTsun branch of Wing Chun, "Their common features are that during fights, pugilists of these systems prefer short steps and close fighting, with their arms placed close to the chest, their elbows lowered and kept close to the flanks to offer it protection. Another characteristic of these two systems of kung-fu is, unlike those of Kwangtung Province and Northern China, their boxing forms are rather simple"

The characteristic rounded shoulders and concave chest of Hakka styles are the features that distinguish them from Fujian styles.

Until the generation of masters Lau Shui and Lum Wing-Fay, Southern Praying Mantis was taught exclusively to Hakka. In fact, the general public of the Pearl River Delta referred to Southern Praying Mantis as "Hakka Kuen," according to the traditions of its Kwong Sai Jook Lum branch.

Other styles that are associated with Hakka Kuen include:

• Bak Mei
• Chuka Shaolin
• Dragon style
• Southern Praying Mantis
• Vagrant Style (流民派)

Hakka hill songs (客家山歌) are probably one of the better known elements of Hakka culture.

They vary in theme from love to personal conduct. In the past, they are said to have been used as a method of courting between young men and women.

Hakka Hill Songs are also used as a form of communication at a distance. Since Hakka people mostly live in hilly areas, song is used as a better means of communication than spoken words. The melody of Hakka Hill Songs tend to have higher pitch so the sound can travel farther.

Hakka Hill Songs can be made up impromptu, to communicate with others or to express oneself. The lyrics can also be made to contain puzzles, as a game or a more competitive nature. The challenger will answer the puzzle in the form of song of similar melody.

Hakka Cuisine: The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are owned by Hakkas.

The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜). While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Offal in China was/is also more expensive than meat, as was/is fatty pork more expensive than lean pork. Offal was/is a premier food in China. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and many Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet.

Famous Hakka dishes include:

The dish is stir-fried, seasoned with light soy sauce, salt, sugar and sometimes rice wine or vinegar (depending on taste).

Hakka food also includes takes on other traditional Chinese dishes, just as other Chinese ethnic groups do.

 

客家菜: 你一定要學會的75道經典好滋味 by 邱寶郎

 

 

六堆回味: 屏東六堆客家地區傳統老店 by 徐麗雯

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hakka Architecture

Hakka architecture is a building style in southern China unique to the Hakka people. They are typically designed for defensive purposes and consist of one entrance and no windows at ground level.

The Hakka were originally immigrants from northern China who settled in the southern provinces. From the 17th century onwards, population pressures drove them more and more into conflict with their neighbours (called punti in Cantonese). As rivalry for resources turned to armed warfare, the Hakka began building communal living structures designed to be easily defensible. These houses, sometimes called tulou, were often round in shape and internally divided into many compartments for food storage, living quarters, ancestral temple, armoury etc. The largest houses covered over 40,000 m² and it is not unusual to find surviving houses of over 10,000 m².

The materials used for Hakka architecture can either be brick, stone, or rammed earth, with the latter being most common.. The external wall is typically 1 metre in thickness and the entire building could be up to three or four stories in height. Often turrets were also built to extend the range of defensive power and to cover otherwise indefensible points. Battlements were also constructed on the top floor for muskets. The gate was the most vulnerable point and it was usually reinforced with stone and covered with iron. A number of smaller gates followed, in case the outer one was breached. With the exception of a few excessively large forts, Hakka houses usually only had one entrance. The round shape of the walls, which became popular in later stages, added to the defensive value of the fortifications and reduced the firepower of artillery against it. A Hakka fort could withstand a protracted siege, since it was well stocked with grains and had an internal source of water. They often also had their own sophisticated sewage systems.

The architectural style of Hakka forts is largely unique in China and around the world. The typical Chinese house contains a courtyard and other than pagodas, does not often contain any structures higher than two stories. The origins of Hakka architecture have been traced to older forms of fortifications in southern China, as seen in Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms tomb models unearthed in Guangzhou, Guangdong and in Ezhou, Hubei.

Tulou: The Hakkas who settled in mountainous south western Fujian province in China developed unique architectural buildings called tu lou, literally meaning earthen structures. Because of the undesirable mountainous regions, the Hakkas set up these unique homes to prevent attack from bandits and marauders. The tu lou are either round or square, and were designed as a large fortress and apartment building in one. Structures typically had only one entranceway and no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function - the first hosts a well and livestock, the second is for food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu lou can be found mostly in south western Fujian and southern Jiangxi provinces. Tulou buildings have been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

The largest communities of Hakkas worldwide, live mostly in eastern Guangdong, in particular the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) Area, whereas most the oversea descended Hakkas came from Huizhou. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning（興寧） and Meixian（梅縣） area developed a non-fortress like unique architectural styles, most notably the weilongwu (圍龍屋) and sijiaolou (四角樓).

 

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Notable Hakka People

 

Chow Yun-Fat

Chow Yun-Fat (周潤發) is a Hong Kong Film Award-winning actor. He is best known in Asia for his collaboration with filmmaker John Woo in heroic bloodshed genre films A Better Tomorrow, The Killer, and Hard-Boiled; and to the West for his role as King Rama IV in Anna and the King. He mainly plays in dramatic films and has won three Hong Kong Film Awards for "Best Actor" and two Golden Horse Awards for "Best Actor" in Taiwan.

Of Hakka origins, he grew up in a farming community on Lamma Island.

 

 

Aw Boon Haw

Aw Boon Haw (胡文虎) was a Burmese Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist best known for introducing Tiger Balm. His family was of Hakka descent and his ancestors were from Yongding County in Fujian Province. Haw later migrated to Singapore, where he began the business of Tiger Red Balm with his brother, Aw Boon Par.

Haw founded several newspapers, including Sin Chew Jit Poh (星洲日報) and Guang Ming Daily (光明日報), which are both based in Malaysia today. Sing Tao Daily (星島日報) dates back to 1938 and is currently based in Hong Kong.

 

 

Jimmy Choo

Jimmy Choo is a London-based luxury fashion designer best known for his hand-made women's shoes, Jimmy Choo Ltd.

Choo is a Malaysian citizen of Hakka Chinese descent, who was born in Penang in 1961 into a family of shoemakers. He made his first shoe when he was 11 years old. He is perhaps the most famous of students of Cordwainers' Technical College in London, from which he graduated in 1983. The college is now part of the London College of Fashion. Choo has divulged that he worked part-time at restaurants and as a cleaner at a shoe factory to help fund his college education.

Jimmy Choo's beginnings can be traced back to his workshop in Hackney, East London, which he opened in 1986 by renting an old hospital building. His craftsmanship and designs were soon noticed and he came to the verge of international fame when his creations were featured in a record eight pages in a 1988 issue of Vogue magazine. Patronage from Diana, Princess of Wales from 1990 onwards further boosted his image.

In 1996, he co-founded Jimmy Choo Ltd with British Vogue accessories editor Tamara Mellon.

In April 2001, Choo sold his 50% stake in the company for £10 million. He has since been concentrating his work on the exclusive Jimmy Choo Couture line produced under license from Jimmy Choo Ltd. The Jimmy Choo London line, also known as Jimmy Choo Ready-To-Wear or simply, Jimmy Choo, is under the purview of Tamara Mellon. The ready-to-wear line has expanded to include accessories such as handbags.

Choo currently resides in London. He is currently involved in a project to set up a shoemaking institute in Malaysia, where his iconic status is often evoked to inspire budding shoemakers and fashion designers.

 

 

Naomi Campbell

Naomi Campbell (born 22 May 1970) is an English model, singer, and actress. Campbell was born in Streatham, London, England. Her mother, Valerie Campbell (née Morris), is a former ballet dancer of Jamaican descent. In accordance with her mother's wishes, Campbell has never met her unnamed father, who left then-18-year-old Valerie two months after the birth of their daughter. Campbell is Black Jamaican and also of Chinese Hakka descent through her paternal grandmother of Chinese Jamaican ancestry (family name Ming). Of her appearance, Campbell has said: "My features are completely ethnic, and I'm proud of them."

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and can trace their origin to the Chinese labourers that came to Jamaica in the mid 19th to early 20th centuries. 75% of all Chinese indentured labourers dispatched to the British West Indies were sent to British Guiana in the late 1800s, but many later moved to Jamaica. About 96% of the Chinese who migrated to the Americas in the 1800s came from a small region in southern Kwangtung on the Pearl River Delta near large cities like Hong Kong. The very first Chinese Caribbean people were the 60 men aboard the Whirlwind, which set sail from Hong Kong on March 11, 1860.

Interracial marriages came almost immediately, and along with continued immigration the Chinese Jamaican community grew, so that it became the second-largest Chinese Caribbean population, behind only Cuba. The 1946 Jamaica census recorded, 12,394 Chinese Jamaicans: "2,818 China-born, 4,061 local born, 5,515 Chinese coloured," with the latter referring to multiracial Blasian people. The term Blasian is an American term and not of Jamaican origin. It is not used in Jamaican vernacular.

Assimilation has taken place through generations and few Chinese Jamaicans can speak Chinese today; most of them speak English or Jamaican Patois as their first language. The vast majority have anglicized given names, and many have Chinese surnames. The Chinese food culture has survived to a large degree among this group of people.

Since the 1970s, there have been a significant emigration of Chinese Jamaicans from the island, primarily to the United States, United Kingdom and Canada.

 

 

賴和

賴和（1894年5月28日－1943年1月31日），台灣彰化縣人，原名賴河，筆名有懶雲、甫三、安都生、灰、走街先。本職是醫生，但是卻在文學領域留下盛名，尤其是他的詩作，被公認是台灣最有代表性的民族詩人之一。賴和不但是台灣日治時期重要的作家，同時也是台灣1930年代作家所公認的文壇領袖，曾經催生、主編過《台灣民報》的文藝欄。由於他提攜後進不餘遺力，因此他的同輩楊守愚說他是「台灣新文藝園地的開墾者」與「台灣小說界的褓母」，並在「光復慶祝後二日」一文中讚揚他為「台灣的魯迅」。曾經主編新潮文庫的醫生文人林衡哲，則尊稱賴和為「台灣現代文學之父」。

賴和是閩南化的客家人，仍保有客家認同，但已經不會說客家話，曾賦詩道：「我本客屬人，鄉語逕自忘，戚然傷抱懷，數典愧祖宗。」

幼年接受古典漢文教育，後受完整日本語教育，漢語白話文全靠看書自學的他，堅持使用漢語白話文寫作許多小說、散文、評論、新體詩，是使用漢語白話文創作現代台灣文學小說的第1人，並嘗試將台語（台灣河洛話）寫入小說對話，是台灣鄉土文學和用台語做文學寫作的第1人。

他用漢詩（漢語古典詩）言志、抒懷，用白話文學作品啟發台灣人民的國民性。

賴和行醫小故事: 賴和本職是個醫生，也到處行醫濟世，不論是什麼他都願意替病人治療。就如孔子有教無類般，只是他是有醫無類罷了！因為這樣，許多人的性命都因為賴和的有醫無類之精神給保住。但是畢竟本職是個醫生，所以需要靠行醫來賺錢。可是窮困人家付不起醫藥費，賴和卻只拿出一本帳本上面記著「某某先生，某月某日因某病，某藥幾兩……費用某元」，所以很多窮困人家都很感激賴和。因為他並沒有強迫他們要馬上付出醫藥費，而是可以賒帳，但是，每年過節的時候賴和都會將帳本給燒掉。若是有窮困人家要來還債，賴和都會一概拒絕，也否認曾經有將這些費用記載在帳本上。

評價: 賴和悲天憫人的胸懷，兼具文采及內涵的優秀作品，對正在萌芽的台灣新文學無疑是一大鼓舞。賴和擔任《台灣民報》文藝欄主編時，也不斷對新進作家給予鼓勵和建議，受他影響的後進有楊逵、王詩琅、呂赫若、吳濁流、葉石濤等人。

 

 

* 殖民地醫學與 賴和〈蛇先生〉的再詮釋 by 邱雅芳