HAKKA

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

 

The Hakka people (客家人; Hakka language: Hak-kâ; Mandarin Chinese: Kèjiā) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people based in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian in China and speaking the Hakka language. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago, but the origins of the Hakkas is still a contested issue. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world. The Hakkas have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

 

Hakkas in Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15-20% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the second largest ethnic group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung.

Many people in Taiwan are of mixed Hoklo, Hakka, and Formosan aboriginal heritage. Approximately half of the population of Hakka in Taiwan also speak Taiwanese, and it is highly likely that many Taiwanese-speaking households were descendants of Hakka families in Taiwan who lost their language a few generations back.

* 行政院客家委員會全球資訊網 (Council for Hakka Affairs, Executive Yuan)

 

 

臺灣客家人來台相當早，德國史學家 Riess 研究荷蘭史料發現：荷蘭人來台與原住民溝通時，多由客家人居中翻譯。客家人後來因施琅嚴禁粵中惠、潮之民渡台，人口數逐漸不如閩籍，而在閩客械鬥失利，被迫退出平原，遷至靠山的丘陵地。於是丘陵地多形成客家人為主的村莊，保有濃厚的客家文化，亦有部份地區的客家人在人口數居上風，得以居住在平原或沿海鄉鎮。

美濃客家文物館

Meinong Township (美濃鎮) is a famous Hakka urban township in Kaohsiung County, Taiwan. The area has grown tobacco since 1630 and is renowned nationwide for its oil paper umbrellas.

 

 

日治時期台灣閩粵原住民分佈概圖

廣東人: 惠州, 嘉應

 

惠州市是中國廣東省下轄的一個地級市，位於廣東省東南部，珠江三角洲東端，南海大亞灣的北部。惠州市是廣東省的省級歷史文化名城，自古即有「嶺南名郡」和「粵東門戶」之稱，歷史上曾有包括蘇東坡在內的不少名人旅居於此，留下大量題詠惠州的詩詞，因而使惠州積累了深厚的人文底蘊。

惠州漢族人中，大多數是客家人，此外還有鶴佬人和廣府人。客家人在市內各市轄區、縣都有分佈，鶴佬人主要分佈於惠陽區、博羅縣、惠東縣，廣府人主要分佈於龍門縣、博羅縣。

惠州市地處客家話、粵語、潮汕話三大方言的交匯區，三種語言在境內均有分佈。而在惠城區和博羅縣一帶流行的惠州話，是一種既受客家話，又受粵語影響的本地方言。此外在惠東縣平海等地，還有軍聲等較有特色的方言。近年來，隨著外來人口的增多，普通話也成為日常社交的一種語言。

嘉應指梅州市，中國廣東省下轄的一個地級市，舊稱為嘉應。

梅州市是中國廣東省的一個地級市，1988年經國務院批准設立。梅州市位於廣東省東北部，是歷史上客家民系的最終形成地、聚居地和繁衍地，更是全世界客家華僑的祖籍地和精神家園，在第十二屆世界客屬聯誼會上，梅州被尊為「世界客都」。

考古發現，在新石器時代，梅州就已有石斧、彈丸等生產工具，說明在該時期梅州已有人居住。春秋戰國時期已經有較為先進的生產工具了。

先秦時期，梅州為百越人所居住，由於稱之為「蠻夷之地」，因而諸侯爭霸並未影響到南方。直到秦統一六國，梅州才隸屬南海郡。秦末，在派來鎮守南疆的趙佗趁秦的腐敗脫離秦朝，建立南越國，梅州因而被南越王所管轄。到漢武帝時期，南越歸順西漢。

梅州市以漢族客家人為主，在豐順縣有部分漢族潮汕人。除漢族外，還有少量的畲族，大多居住在豐順。歷史上畲族曾是梅州的原居民，與客家人相處和諧。然而到了元朝，朝廷為了平定起義，曾經在梅州進行鎮壓，導致畲族大量逃亡或混入客籍。

 

臺灣客家人分佈

臺灣客家人來台相當早，德國史學家 Riess 研究荷蘭史料發現：荷蘭人來台與原住民溝通時，多由客家人居中翻譯。客家人後來因施琅嚴禁粵中惠、潮之民渡台，人口數逐漸不如閩籍，而在閩客械鬥失利，被迫退出平原，遷至靠山的丘陵地。於是丘陵地多形成客家人為主的村莊，保有濃厚的客家文化，亦有部份地區的客家人在人口數居上風，得以居住在平原或沿海鄉鎮。箇中代表如：

• 詔安腔
  • 雲林縣：崙背鄉、二崙鄉，西螺鎮。
  • 台中市：西屯區、北屯區部分地區。《張廖家族族譜》
  • 桃園縣：八德市部分地區、大溪鎮的黃興村。大溪南興的黃姓。
  • 台北縣：新店市的安坑庄。
  • 南投縣：中寮鄉部分地區。
  • 嘉義縣：中埔鄉境內的詔安厝。
  • 宜蘭縣：部分地區。
• 饒平腔
  • 桃園縣：中壢（芝芭里、興南庄、三座屋、過嶺里）、平鎮（南勢庄）、 新屋（犁頭洲）、觀音（新坡村）；八德（宵裡）。八德關路缺袁、張、邱姓，大園許姓、邱姓，南崁、中壢南勢、大崙王姓，中壢、芝芭里（前縣長劉邦友、劉興善家族）、雙連陂劉姓（劉璞珍、劉奕坤家族），中壢鄧姓，國立中央大學三座屋邱姓（現桃園縣議長邱奕勝家族）、張姓，過嶺、新陂、芝芭里許姓（前縣長許信良、前內政部次長許應深家族），新屋冨源陳姓，新屋劉姓，楊梅、山子頂許姓，龍潭邱姓，龍岡後寮陳姓的饒平話。
  • 新竹縣：芎林鄉紙寮窩、上山地區。竹北市六家地區。
  • 苗栗縣：卓蘭鎮（老莊）。
  • 彰化縣：永靖鄉、員林鎮多數邱姓人為河洛客。
  • 雲林縣：斗六劉姓、莿秱鄉饒平村。
  • 花蓮縣：部分地區
• 大埔腔
  • 苗栗縣：卓蘭（中街、內灣、水尾）。
  • 臺中縣：豐原市部分地區、東勢鎮，石岡鄉，新社鄉（除了新五村以外），和平鄉部分地區。
• 永定腔(汀州腔)：散居各地。
  • 台北縣：三芝。
  • 彰化縣：員林、永靖、溪湖。
  • 桃園縣：龍潭，觀音江姓（前國大代表江瑞添家族），中壢吳姓（前任國民黨主席吳伯雄家族）、胡姓。
  • 嘉義縣：部分地區（"劉文科公"派下）
• 平和
  • 台中市：北屯區賴姓來自福建省平和縣。
  • 桃園縣：：桃園市呂姓、黃姓。
• 海陸（海豐、陸豐）腔
  • 桃園縣：觀音鄉（沿海鄉鎮、平原地形）、新屋鄉（沿海鄉鎮、平原地形）、楊梅鎮富岡地區。
  • 新竹縣：全縣（除了關西鎮部分地區）。
  • 花蓮縣：花東縱谷平原，鳳林鎮、吉安鄉、壽豐鄉、新城鄉、玉里鎮、瑞穗鄉部分地區。
• 四縣腔（目前之新聞官方語）
  • 桃園縣：中壢市、龍潭鄉、平鎮市、楊梅鎮。
  • 新竹縣：關西鎮部分地區。
  • 苗栗縣：不靠海的內陸地區，苗栗市、公館、頭份、大湖、銅鑼、三義、 西湖、南庄、頭屋、卓蘭（大部份）、通霄、後龍（部份）。
  • 高雄縣：六堆地區的美濃平原、杉林、六龜。
  • 屏東縣：六堆地區的竹田、萬巒、內埔、長治、麟洛、新埤、佳冬、高樹。
  • 花蓮縣：部分地區。
  • 台東縣：花東縱谷部分地區，台東市、池上、鹿野、關山、成功、太麻里、卑南。
• 混合區域
  • 彰化縣二林鎮、竹塘鄉、埤頭鄉：日治時代日本人為了種植甘蔗招募苗栗、新竹等地的客家人前來移墾，而形成的客家新聚落，雖然聚落頗多，但都在源成農場範圍的七界之內，因此，這些客家莊，才都被稱為「七界內」。
  • 南投縣國姓鄉：來自台中東勢、苗栗卓蘭和新竹等地前來的客家人，佔了境內族群的75%。
  • 南投縣埔里鎮：一百年前，來自台中東勢、苗栗、桃園和新竹等地移居來的客家人，佔了鎮內人口結構的80%。
  • 花蓮縣鳳林鎮：是一個客家鎮，目前全鎮客家人口約佔百分之八十。係一百年來，相繼自西部的台北、宜蘭、新竹、苗栗等地遷入者。
• 未知區域
  • 彰化縣溪洲鄉部分地區。
  • 南投縣的魚池、水裡、信義。
  • 嘉義縣的中埔鄉境內中埔、牛稠埔等地，還有枋子林、詔安厝、海豐厝、客庄等地，尚有疏疏落落的客家人。
  • 台南縣白河：相對於白河大排竹村民以「河洛（福佬）庄」自稱，白河店仔口村民以「客庄內」自稱。
  • 宜蘭縣的員山鄉及三星，蘇澳、冬山、礁溪、羅東部分地區。
  • 花蓮縣：花蓮市部分地區。
• 其他區域
  • 桃園縣：桃園市，呂姓（前任副總統呂秀蓮家族）南靖話

早期影響台灣客家人口分佈的因素，主要為閩粵械鬥及樟腦採集，客家人並沒有來台較晚，也不是主動選擇類似原鄉地形之丘陵地來居住。道光十年（1830年）台北盆地閩粵二族因爭地盤發生械鬥，客家人人數較少械鬥失敗，被迫遷至開墾較晚、較貧瘠的山麓與丘陵地帶。美濃平原，則是客家人在原漢械鬥中，從平埔族手中得來的。新屋鄉屬沿海鄉鎮、平原地形，原有平埔族及泉州人先後開墾，後因客家移民日增，成為客家鄉鎮，永安漁港亦成為台灣唯一以客家籍為主體的漁港。花蓮縣客家人多為日治時期樟腦業盛行時，自臺灣西部遷居，臺南縣楠西鄉亦有同例，埔里鎮在一百年前台灣日治時期，來自台中東勢、苗栗、桃園和新竹等地的客家人，從事樟腦業因而遷徙，佔了境內族群的80%。

原本嘉南平原也零星分布著許多客家聚落，但由於被閩南族群聚落包圍，形同「語言孤島」。經過數代之後，不少人已只講閩南語而不通曉客語，也可能影響到文化認同，成為被鶴佬人（福佬人）同化的客家人，習稱「福佬客」。另外，遷居到大台北、臺中市、高雄市等都會區的客家人，因為沒有說客語的環境，往往到了下一代，即被閩南化，變成僅使用閩南語的「福佬客」。

1950年代以後，由於國民黨政府大力消滅「方言」，推廣國語，年輕一代客家人的母語表達能力大幅衰退。1980年代以後出生的客家人，有相當大的比例係直接以國語作為「母語」，造成更大的客家語言危機。

依據中華民國行政院客家委員會2008年的調查，在「多重認定」的條件下，台灣的客家人佔18.6%，約427.6萬人，其中新竹縣68.4%、苗栗縣64.8%是客家人。其次桃園縣37.6%、花蓮縣31.9%、新竹市29%、屏東縣23%、台東縣22%、台北縣16.7%、台中縣16.2%、台北市15.8%、高雄縣14.3%、台中市、基隆市皆14.1%。南投縣13.9%、高雄市12.1%、嘉義市10.3%，其餘縣市比例不足10%。

The Hakka Odyssey and Their Taiwan Homeland by Clyde Kiang

 

 

 

客家人的力量 by 松本一男

 

 

 

台灣不能沒有客家人 by 張文亮

 

 

 

客家源流新論：誰是客家人 by 陳支平

 

 

 

 

六堆

六堆，原為清治時期台灣南部屏東平原客家人聚落的民間自衛組織。1895年反抗日本治台的乙未戰爭結束後，自衛組嬂瓦解，「六堆」一詞已逐漸轉變為該地區客家族群之概念性統稱。

康熙60年（1721年），原籍福建漳州，在羅漢門養鴨為業，人稱「鴨母王」的朱一貴，因不滿清廷苛政，號召鄉里誓師抗清。當時在下淡水檳榔林（現今屏東縣內埔鄉中林村），同樣對時政不滿的廣東籍杜君英，也率眾前來應合，但兩人因權力爭奪，開始內鬨，朱一貴於是開始對杜君英及其部屬的家鄉──屏東客家莊展開報復。 為了保護身家性命、維繫族群存亡，高屏溪兩岸客家聚落代表在今六堆天后宮(屏東縣內埔媽祖廟)之地集會，以今日竹田鄉西勢村為中心，面向高屏溪的方向，分成前、後、左、右、中，以及先鋒等六個營隊，統稱「六營」，而後為與官方組織區隔，而稱六堆。

六堆分別指：

• 右堆：美濃鎮、六龜鄉、杉林鄉、甲仙鄉部分、旗山鎮部分、高樹鄉、里港鄉部分
• 左堆：新埤鄉、佳冬鄉
• 前堆：長治鄉、麟洛鄉、屏東市部分、九如鄉部分、鹽埔鄉部分
• 後堆：內埔鄉
• 中堆：竹田鄉
• 先鋒堆：萬巒鄉。

 

地圖上找不到的客家桃花源: 六堆

 

 

 

六堆客家與清代屏東平原 by 林正慧

 

 

 

 

The Battle of Changhsing

The Battle of Changhsing (26 November 1895), popularly known in Taiwan as the Battle of the Burning Village (火燒庄戰役) was the last set-piece battle during the Japanese invasion of Taiwan. It was fought by Hakka militia and armed civilians against the invading Imperial Japanese Army in Changhsing village (長興村). The battle earned its name from the fact that the entire village was burnt to the ground by the Japanese during their attempts to capture it from the Formosans.

Background: After the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki and the establishment of the Republic of Formosa, Chiu Feng-yang, a Hakka leader from Pingtung, called upon his supporters to form the so-called Liutui Hakka militias (六堆客家義軍). The militias were organized into six units, according to the villages where they were recruited, hence the name Liutui (六堆, six stacks). The militias first engaged the Japanese at Chiatung, and were defeated due to their poor training and weaponry. By the time the militia regrouped further to the south, the Republic of Formosa had collapsed in the wake of President Liu Yung-fu's flight to mainland China on 20 October 1895 and the capitulation of Tainan to the Japanese on 21 October. Seeing no hope of matching the Japanese in a fight in the open around Tainan, Chiu ordered a retreat to Changhsing village, Pingtung, where he planned to make a last stand.

The Battle: Soon after their arrival, the militias fortified the village and brought in supplies. When the Japanese arrived, they found that a stone wall and other strong defensive positions had been built around Changhsing, and that almost the entire population of the village were armed, most of them with primitive weapons. The Japanese attempted to storm the village, but were pushed back several times by the Formosans. Hakka villages in Taiwan at that time were often provided with elaborate fortifications, partly due to the perennial threat of raids by head-hunting aborigines, and a village might be surrounded by ditches and a wooden palisade, and perhaps also a wooden wall with towers and loopholes, which would be difficult to storm without artillery. After hours of fierce fighting but little gain, the Japanese commander resorted to a massive bombardment to set fire to the village, and was successful in his attempt. The defenses were broken up and vicious hand-to-hand fighting ensued. In the end, more than half of the defenders, including their leader, were either killed or incapacitated, and the village was burnt to the ground by the fire. The Japanese suffered 15 killed and 57 wounded.

Aftermath: The battle officially ended all formal resistance to the Japanese invasion, but sporadic insurgency continued on for several more years, ending only when the Japanese governor-general adopted a more flexible policy towards the local population. On the other hand, out of respect toward the defenders, the Japanese commander personally paid homage to the Formosan dead. In 1901, Governor-General Kodama Gentaro also paid homage at the Chung-Yi house, or the "House of the Loyal and Just Ones" (忠義亭), and ordered an annual commemoration to be held.

Several decades after the battle, Yu Youren, the then chairman of Control Yuan of Republic of China, visited the site of the battle and wrote a poem praising the Formosan resistance:

Original Text	Romanization	Translation
氣與河山壯 名爭日月光 煌煌民族史 照耀火燒庄	chi-yu-he-shan-chuang min-cheng-ri-yue-kuang hui-huang-min-tsu-shih chao-yao-huo-shao-chuang	Imposing as the rivers and mountains Bright as the Sun and the Moon The glorious history of our nation Shines on the Burning Village

A monument was dedicated in 1995 to the Formosans who fell in the battle.

 

1895 (video)

1895 (1895乙未) is a Taiwanese film based on the Japanese Invasion of Taiwan in 1895, with emphasis on the Hakka fighters and their families in the conflict. The film has a limited budget of sixty million New Taiwan Dollars, with roughly half of it provided by the Council for Hakka Affair of Executive Yuan. The film was released on November 7, 2008.

 

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客家

客家，或稱客家人、客家民系，是一個具有顯著特徵的漢族分支族群，也是漢族在世界上分布範圍廣闊、影響深遠的民系之一。(但也有人認為，客家人並不是漢族，主體是南方民族)

從西晉永嘉之亂開始，中原漢族居民大舉南遷，抵達粵贛閩三地交界處，與當地土著居民雜處，互通婚姻，經過千年演化最終形成相對穩定的客家人。此後，客家人又以梅州為基地，大量外遷到華南各省乃至世界各地。客家四州為梅州、贛州、汀州、惠州。福建寧化石壁是客家傳說民系形成的中心地域，石壁被成稱為「客家祖地」。

起源: 客家人作為中華民族的一份子，雖然有些人認為客家人是純種漢族，然而根據1991年《中國遺傳學報》所做的全國人種基因比對後，發現全國漢人中，客家人跟北方漢族並不為絕對同種；經比對，民族構成主體是南方的民族。

一般而言，客家人是於唐末宋初的南遷漢族人在閩、粵、贛交界地區，融合了大部分的畲族、瑤族等南中國土著居民。客家文化的文化特徵繼承了古代中原漢族文化，但也混合了一些南方土著文化，經過長時間的融合和吸收，客家人已形成具有濃厚特色的客家文化。

名稱的由來: 在客家話中，普通話的「客人」被稱為「人客」，客家人中的「客人」並非單純的Guest含義。

「客家」之稱出於清代的一次大規模族群土客械鬥，是由當時在廣東西部江門地區（時稱四邑）相對而言以「地主」自居的「廣府民系」等冠予客家的，是一個他稱。「客家」這個這個他稱名詞後來由於羅香林的客家學說而廣為人所知，逐漸成為族群名稱，不少人開始欣然受之，自稱客家人。但部分人並不喜歡這個名詞。在台灣的部分，清治和日治時期以廣東祖先和福建祖先來區分，福建客家人被列入「閩籍」。

六次中原遷徙說: 綜合海內外的客家人從各家各族的族譜統計，得出了以下六個主要的遷徙時期：

• 第一次在秦始皇統一全國時期：秦始皇為了鞏固新取得的南方國土，派遣了大批軍民到粵北。後代子孫被稱為北江客家。
• 第二次在東晉永嘉年間：因為五胡亂華，使山西、河北及河南一帶的漢人紛紛渡過黃河，由皖渡長江經贛北；
• 第三次在唐朝僖宗乾符二年：因為黃巢之亂，使江西北部的居民再遷往江西西部、福建西部及南部和廣東東部及北部；
• 第四次在南宋末年：這是客家民系南遷到廣東的關鍵時期。隨著蒙古軍的南進，贛閩客家先民隨敗退的宋皇室進入廣東東部、北部；
• 第五次是明末清初：粵閩地區部分客家人由於湖廣填四川的政策遷徙到川渝；尤其以川東地區重慶居多。
• 第六次是清朝中期：廣東客家地區田寡人稠情況日趨嚴重，大量客家人移民至南洋、台灣等地。

文化: 客家人非常團結合作，而且多居于山區，故有濃厚的山區文化，客家人也被稱為「丘陵上的民族」。

• 客家人唱山歌，並且在不同的場合、節慶時有對歌的風俗。
• 客家人與明清時代的漢族人不同，歷來從沒有裹腳的習俗，窮人家女子一般赤腳或穿木屐，與男子無異。
• 客家人有在清明節做艾粄的習俗，各地的掃墓時間不同。
• 客家人有拾骨葬的習俗，拾骨葬是客家文化繼承百越文化的一部份。

語言: 客家人使用一種獨特的語言，通常稱為客家話，在廣西也叫作「涯話」、「新民話」，「麻介(gai)話」，在四川則被稱作「土廣東話」，在江西、湖南等省有「棚民話」等俗稱。

客家話在客家族群認同上扮演著很重要的作用，客家人素有「寧賣祖宗田，莫忘祖宗言」的祖訓。

客家話有一種由西方基督教傳教士於19世紀創立，使用羅馬字母拼寫的文字，由閩南語白話字改造而來。傳教士用這種文字印刷了不少基督教刊物。現代這種文字已經少有人會用。

服飾: 客家傳統服飾為「上穿大襟衫，下穿大襠褲」，其顏色以青色、黑色為主，給人素雅而嚴肅的印象，恰似其沈穩隱斂之民族性。現代客家人基本上都穿西式服裝，與其他漢族人無異。粵東北、贛南等地還保留有一些小孩子穿戴的客家傳統服飾，頭飾通常具有很多銀簪和銀鈴。

 

 

台灣族群分布成因

分類械鬥說: 台灣早期族群分布深受分類械鬥影響。客家人因分類械鬥失利退出平原（如臺北盆地）轉往丘陵居住，因分類械鬥得勝而住在平原（如美濃區）、海濱（如新屋鄉。漳州移民主要居住在中部平原地帶、北部沿海地區及蘭陽平原；泉州移民主要居住在中部沿海地區、臺北盆地，南部則為泉漳混合區。故「泉州人居住在海濱，漳州人居住在內陸平原」的說法，僅在台灣中部地區符合此一分布。

渡臺先後說: 不過亦有人主張族群分布是因移民的先後時間，閩南人較早抵達台灣，因此佔據平地，較晚移民的客家人便在北部丘陵定居。惟事實上客家人、泉州人、漳州人同時來台。

原鄉地形說: 此說法認為泉州人在中國大陸原鄉本來就住在海岸邊，漳州人住在平原，客家人住在丘陵，因此他們渡臺時，也依照原鄉的生活方式在臺居住。惟事實上漳州、泉州都有內山和濱海縣分，也有不少客家人住在閩、粵濱海地區。

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Hakkas in China

Map of Jiangxi, Fujian, and Guandong

Hakkas in Guangdong: The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (圍龍屋) and sijiaolou (四角樓).

Hakkas in Fujian: It was said that the early Hakka ancestors traveled from north China entered Fujian first, then through Tingjiang river they traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China and overseas. So Tingjiang river is also regarded as Hakka's Mother River.

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

Hakkas in Jiangxi: Nearly all of southern Jiangxi province is Hakka, especially in Ganzhou.

Hakkas in Sichuan: Emperor Kang Xi (reigned 1662AD to 1722AD), after a tour of the land,decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after many wars. Seeing the Hakkas were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province the Emperor encouraged the Hakkas in the south to emigrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those who were willing to resettle in Sichuan; eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child. Knowing the land in Sichuan was much fertile than than where they lived and in order to escape the hardship and miserable lives thousands upon thousands of Hakkas living in the regions between theprovinces of Guangdong and Fujian responded and accepted the offer by Emperor Kang Xi. This migration is referred as the fourth migration of the Hakkas. Nowadays, millions of Sichuanese could trace their roots back to the province of Guangdong, especially the district of Meixian. Deng Xiaoping, the former paramount leader of China, was born into a Hakka family in Guang An county in Sichuan province. Deng's ancestors could be traced back to Meixian. Zhu De, the famous commander-in-chief of the Chinese Red Army since its inception in Jing Gang Shan in 1927, was born in Yi Long county in Sichuan province. His father, a Hakka, was born in Guangdong province. Zhu De's grandfather took his family and emigrated to Sichuan province. He was one of the thirteen children of the Zhu family.

Hakkas in Hong Kong: In contemporary society, the Hakka people in Hong Kong have been identified primarily through their concentration and population in the villages and small towns in the New Territories, which were unpopulated and did not have a native or 'Punti' population. The Hakkas thus became the 'puntis' of these areas when they moved in. During the Qing Dynasty, the Hakka people were displaced and persecuted due to their cultural differences from the Manchus of the Qing. Refusing to practise the binding of feet (which was not a practice in Chinese classical eras), the Hakka people were marked out as 'Hak' or 'guest' people in Hong Kong [Cantonese dialect transliteration], as these people never state which part of China their ancestors were from. The last great migration of the Hakka people towards Hong Kong took place at the time of the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864). Hakka dissenters featured in the anti-government rebellion and subsequently were persecuted following the failure of the Taipings.

The Hakka people practised mainstream Confucian practices as any other Han Chinese group, with a hierarchised dependence on authority given through the family head. Christianised by Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries in the mid-19th century who gave food to the Hakka and the poor, the Hakka were often slanderously categorised by Puntis with the cult practices of Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Tianguo movement. Thus the new settlers were forced by the circumstances and, not physically by the Puntis, to concentrate on the northern New Territories of Hong Kong. The Hakka people placed a greater reliance on the internal strengths of their own customs, cultural identity and education. This model of community survival, dependent on the integrity of the nuclear clan unit in the face of adversity, has contributed to the 20th century outcome of preserving the cultural identity of the Hakka people. British Law was also in force in Hong Kong, preventing any major incidents from taking place. Over the past forty years, due to the social pressures of Hong Kong, many young Hakkas (as well as other internal Chinese migrant groups such as the Shanghai people and the Hoklo people) have been 'localised' and adopted Punti speech.

Occupationally, Hakka were agriculture-based, as were about 95% of the Chinese population then. There was high unemployment in those times as Hong Kong was still a backwater. The Hakka 'mountain song' as well as songs of 'eight tones' have become famous, particularly outside of Hong Kong by several Hakka artists. The traditional Hakka mountain song expressed human struggle and toil in the early and harsh settlement of a land which was untreaded by man, requiring clearing and human effort. Hakka folk-art remains a strong reminder of the folk origin and connection and the naturalistic tendencies of the Hakka populace, working within a self-dependent synergistic agrarian bioecosystem, in exactly the same manner as any other Chinese peasant farmer of the time. Geographically segregated from Qing Dynasty control and persecution following China's military failures of the 19th century, the Hakka people placed great reliance on a traditional but free society with the opportunities to trade and improve. The striving ethos in the Hakka people of Hong Kong also emphasized ancestral and cultural customs with strong Confucian leanings, recognised for its Chineseness, and the modern Western Christian thoughts. In Hong Kong, Hakka villages continue to be aggregated loosely around clanship, maintaining blood-ties to families (often identified through genealogy), as most well connected Puntis also do, but is lost amongst the lower class Puntis. Land rights in The New Territories of Hong Kong are based on English Common Law in respect to Land Law, and apply to both Puntis and Hakkas, and any other people of the region, irrespective of their spoken language. These laws are accepted and followed by the Hong Kong SAR government. Buying and selling of land was also done through the ages.

It is well documented that when the British took over Hong Kong, the territory was almost unpopulated. The Hakkas of Hong Kong were one its earliest inhabitants, and many arrived several centuries before the migration into Hong Kong by Punti Cantonese people. The term Hakka refers to a people and not who was the first to arrived in Hong Kong. To be technically correct, the Hakkas are the Puntis of Hong Kong if one were to make Punti mean aboriginal. Late arrivers to Hong Kong, such the Shanghainese during the Chinese Civil War, are not referred to as 'guests' but by the city from which they took their language. The Hakkas were different as they did not reveal their origins because many of them fled during the period when under the Chinese Law, they could be sentenced to death because someone in their clan within nine generations had committed treason.

 

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Migrations and Group Identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).

Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty. Some of these migrants did not want to reveal where they were from as, under Chinese Laws, a crime of treason committed by one person is punishable by death upon the clan of that person up to nine generations. As the locals did not know where the migrants were from, they referred to them as 'guest families'.

During the reign of Emperor Qing Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地, "original land") of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl River Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different people speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakkas.

The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of the area are the Beijing or Hebei people.

The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.

Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakkas are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous people, and between the Punti and Hakka.

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.

Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad by Nicole Constable

 

 

 

Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors by Sow-Theng Leong, Tim Wright (Editor)

 

 

 

Identification of Hakka Cultural Markers by Grace E. Wright

 

 

 

 

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Hakka Language

Map of Sinitic Languages by Gohu1er

Hakka (客家話) is one of the main subdivisions of the Chinese language spoken predominantly in southern China by the Hakka ethnic group and descendants in diaspora throughout East and Southeast Asia and around the world.

Due to its usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, the Hakka language has developed numerous variants or dialects, spoken in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Guizhou provinces, including Hainan island and Taiwan. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, Cantonese, Minnan and most of the significant spoken variants of the Chinese language.

There is a pronunciation difference between Taiwanese Hakka dialect and Guangdong Hakka dialect. Amongst the dialects of Hakka, the Moi-yen/Moi-yan (梅縣) dialect of northeast Guangdong has typically been viewed as a prime example of the Hakka language, forming a sort of standard dialect.

See Identification of the varieties of Chinese for more on the dispute whether Hakka and other Chinese linguistic groups should be properly considered languages or dialects.

Etymology: The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the language literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak 客 (Mandarin: kè) means "guest", and ka 家 (Mandarin: jīa) means "family". Amongst themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa (-va) 客家話, Hak-fa (-va), 客話, Tu-gong-dung-fa (-va) 土廣東話, literally, "Native Guangdong language," and Ngai-fa (-va)"My/our language".

Maps of Shaanxi and Henan

History: The Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest. The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Henan and Shaanxi provinces, and brought with them features of Chinese languages spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin.) Hakka is quite conservative, and is generally closer to Middle Chinese than other modern Chinese languages. The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants -p -t -k, as are found in other modern southern Chinese languages, but which have been lost in Mandarin. The distance between Hakka and the more well-known Cantonese may be compared to that between Portuguese and Spanish, whereas Mandarin might be compared to French -- more distantly related, and with a quite different phonology.

Middle Chinese (中古漢語), or Ancient Chinese as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese language spoken during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th century - 10th century). The term "Middle Chinese", in contrast to Old Chinese and Modern Chinese, is usually used in the context of historical Chinese phonology, which seeks to reconstruct the pronunciation of Chinese used during these times.

Middle Chinese can be divided into an early period, generally called Early Middle Chinese, and a later period, Late Middle Chinese. The transition point between Early and Later Middle Chinese is thought to be during the Mid-Tang Dynasty and is indicated by phonological developments.

Due to the migration of its speakers, the Hakka language may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary are found in Hakka, Min and Cantonese Chinese languages.

Some people consider Hakka to have mixed with other languages, such as the language of the She people, throughout its development.

Other Dialects of Hakka: The Hakka language has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers in the majority. Surrounding Meixian are the counties of Pingyuan 平遠, Dabu 大埔, Jiaoling 蕉嶺, Xingning 興寧, Wuhua 五華, and Fengshun 豐順. Each is said to have its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, the Xingning does not have rimes ending in [-m] or [-p]. These have merged into [-n] and [-t] ending rimes, respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the [-u-] medial, so whereas Meixian dialect pronounces the character 光 as [kwɔŋ˦], Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as [kɔŋ˧], which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.

As much as endings and vowels are important, the tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones, as typified by Meixian dialect above. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their Ru Sheng tones, and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-Ru tones. Such a dialect is Changting 長汀 which is situated in the Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng 海 豐 and Lufeng 陸 豐 situated on coastal south eastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the Qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in Ping and Ru tones and a Shang tone).

The Hoi-liuk (海陸) Hakka dialect speakers found on Taiwan originated from this region. This particular dialect contains postalveloar consonants, usually not found in other Chinese languages. Taiwan's other main population of Hakka speakers, the Sixian (Hakka: Siyen 四縣) speakers come from Jiaying 嘉應 and surrounding Jiaoling, Pingyuan, Xingning, and Wuhua dialects. Jiaying county later changed its name to Meixian.

* 客語源起南方的語言論證  

 

 

Zhou -- Qin -- Guan Dong Yu --Zhong Yuan Yu -- Hakka -- Hakka Language

Zhou -- Qin -- Qin/Jin State? Jin Dynasty? -- Guan Zhong Yu -- N -- N -- Hakka Language

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Genetic Studies

 

* The Distribution and Most Recent Common Ancestor of the 17q21 Inversion in Humans by Michael P. Donnelly, et al.

Abstract: The polymorphic inversion on 17q21, sometimes called the microtubular associated protein tau (MAPT) inversion, is an approximately 900 kb inversion found primarily in Europeans and Southwest Asians. We have identified 21 SNPs that act as markers of the inverted, i.e., H2, haplotype. The inversion is found at the highest frequencies in Southwest Asia and Southern Europe (frequencies of approximately 30%); elsewhere in Europe, frequencies vary from < 5%, in Finns, to 28%, in Orcadians. The H2 inversion haplotype also occurs at low frequencies in Africa, Central Asia, East Asia, and the Americas, though the East Asian and Amerindian alleles may be due to recent gene flow from Europe. Molecular evolution analyses indicate that the H2 haplotype originally arose in Africa or Southwest Asia. Though the H2 inversion has many fixed differences across the approximately 900 kb, short tandem repeat polymorphism data indicate a very recent date for the most recent common ancestor, with dates ranging from 13,600 to 108,400 years, depending on assumptions and estimation methods. This estimate range is much more recent than the 3 million year age estimated by Stefansson et al. in 2005.

 

MAPT Inversion Frequencies in East Asia

(MLY-Malaysians, LAO-Laos, CBD-Cambodian, CHS-Chinese San Francisco, CHT-Chinese Taiwan, HAK-Hakka, MNG-Mongol, MNC-Manchu, LOL-Lolo, HMG-Hmong, KOR-Korean, JPN-Japanese, AMI-Ami, ATL-Atayal)

 

 

* Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation by Jieming Chen, et al.

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The cluster and stratification of the samples from the ten provinces of China, showing an evident north-south genetic differentiation.)

 

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The three dialect groups from the Guangdong province were shown against all of the Han Chinese samples from the ten provinces. There was stratification among the three dialect groups, along the same north-south trend observed for the overall Han Chinese.)

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

 

 

* 福建人是最純正的漢人! by kameyou

Excerpt: 近兩三年上海復旦大學的人類學中心查出, 從父系的 Y-DNA 看到南越民族父親的子孫在南方最高的是浙江省, 卻只有 26%. 第二高是廣東省, 只有 20%. 福建省, 十分驚訝, 差不多完全沒有南越族的父系DNA, 換句話說, 福建省是最純正的漢人, 比北方人還要純正.

為何福建人竟然是全世界最正宗的漢人血統? 這是因為當年漢武帝消滅閩越國後, 因為閩越之地太遙遠, 深山阻隔, 難以管治. 秦漢從湖南湘江逆水而上, 鑿渠後到了西江上遊, 到桂林, 出兩廣; 又或者從江西逆贛江而上, 過五嶺到廣東的北江. 所以兩廣都算很近. 反而整個福建四處都是險峻大山分隔, 漢朝深感難以管治, 所以將閩越國所有越族人都遷徒到江浙之地

從此, 整個福建差不多全部空虛. 到後來五胡亂華之時, 大量華人移入福建, 如入無人之境. 反而保留了最純正的血統.

 

* DNA檢測解密中國人種遷徙 純種漢族人已不存在 by 李寧源

Excerpt: 漢族，是世界上人口最多的民族，約佔世界總人口的19%，總人口約為13億。根據統計，在中國大陸，漢族佔總人口的92%；在台灣，漢族佔總人口的98%；在香港和澳門，漢族分別佔總人口的95%和97%.

但是，中國是否存在真正的漢族人？他們應該長什麼樣子？現在住在哪？

現在的漢族人，除了擁有血統外，還有什麼“根基”？

最近，經過科學家的研究發現，中國實際上並不存在純種的漢族人，甚至連漢族的概念，在DNA檢測下都已經不復存在。

漢族：曾經生活在中原地區

“我們一般認為漢族人屬於中原人”，蘭州大學生命科學學院副教授謝小東告訴記者，最近，他剛剛完成了西北地區少數民族變遷的DNA研究。

在中國歷史上，中原這個範圍主要是現在的河南，還包括山西南部，江蘇西部及安徽西北部少數地方，也就是說，只有居住在這裡的人才算是中原人，也就是比較純粹的漢族人。

“但這個說法又不對了，在商周時期，建都於今天西安的西周肯定屬於漢族，但到了春秋戰國時期，同樣誕生於陜西的秦則直接被定義為戎，成了少數民族。”謝小東說。

另一個有趣的現象是，中國人一般認為自己是“炎黃子孫”，但根據研究，黃帝發源於今天的甘肅沁陽到天水一帶，炎帝發源於隴東到陜西的黃土高原地區，這些地區實際上都不屬於中原。“這些地方曾長期被成為北狄。”

“因此，漢族只是某一時期人為的地區性劃分，這個民族並不具有其特定的定義，只是為了于周邊相區分而建立的。”謝小東告訴記者。

而隨著中國歷史的變遷，即使曾經被確切定義為漢族地區的居民，也發生了大規模遷移。由於服兵役、逃避戰亂、因罪流放等因素，漢族一直在從中原地區向南遷移。

“根據研究，現在的客家人倒是很純粹的繼承了當時中原人的文化傳統，比如他們說古語，風俗習慣也有歷史痕跡，他們才是真正的中原人，但他們現在只能以少數族群的形式存在了。”

 

衣冠南渡

衣冠南渡，指西晉末年中原地區戰亂，周邊部族內徙建立割據政權，釀成永嘉之亂，中央朝廷受到威脅，晉建武年間，晉元帝率中原漢族臣民南渡，史稱「永嘉之亂，衣冠南渡」，這是中原漢人第一次大規模南遷。

「衣冠」，晉時士族峨冠博帶，風度翩翩，相對於普通人蓬頭短襖。隨晉室南遷的儘是巨家大戶，官宦士紳，-- 普通人家無力負擔搬遷費用 -- 故有「衣冠南渡」之謂。又有說法云「衣冠」代表文明的意思，衣冠南渡即是中原文明南遷。

晉朝首都遷至江東建康（今南京），自此史稱東晉，這是中國首都遷至江南的開始。

福建: 在福建，有「衣冠南渡，八姓入閩」之說。自永嘉二年（308年）起，中原漢人開始大規模進入福建，入閩的主要八姓，指林、陳、黃、鄭、詹、邱、何、胡。

江南: 東晉建都江南，大量士族從華北，南下江南一帶，在江南落地生根。華北士族南渡，號稱僑姓，居首者：琅琊王氏、陳郡謝氏、汝南袁氏、蘭陵蕭氏，合稱「王、謝、袁、蕭」。尤以王、謝最早追隨晉朝進入江南，因而也得以及時掌握東晉權力中樞。

北方士族則以清河崔氏、范陽盧氏二氏為首，崔、盧因家族龐大，產業過多，幾乎無人南移，而後崔、盧在華北較有勢力，這也是為何東晉中樞不見「崔盧」二姓的原因。劉禹錫一句「舊時王謝堂前燕，飛入尋常百姓家」，使世人只知「王謝」而不聞「崔盧」。

此外也有其他士族南渡，如祖逖、蘇峻由原本山東遷居至江南；後期的盧循乃由華北的燕京、范陽南下。

 

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* Biological Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Taiwan by Jen-yih (Albert ) Chu

Based on family pedigree records, two main ethnic groups in Taiwanese Han, Hoklo (Minnan) and Hakka, are traditionally considered descendants of migrants of Han from the " Central Plain " and " Areas of Yellow and Luo Rivers " of northern China. Recent biological data including immunoglobulin, human lymphocyte antigen, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase mutants, thalassemia mutants, microsatellite, mitochondria DNA and other biological studies indicate that Han Chinese have two origins, one in the south and the other in the north. These biological studies also indicate, that the Hoklo and Hakka originated mainly from the southern groups of China. Immunoglobulin studies show that Hakka and Hoklo populations in China are closely related to the southern minorities of China. Based on the gene frequency of immunoglobulin haplotypes, it is estimated that 20-25% of the genes of current Hakka or Hoklo populations in China originated from northern Han and 75-80% from southern groups of China. The HLA typing pattern of Taiwanese aborigines is very different from that of Chinese Han. Analysis of HLA suggests 13% Taiwanese aboriginal genes are in the current Taiwanese Hoklo and Hakka gene pool. A similar percentage of aboriginal ancestry can be estimated by comparing mutant patterns of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in Taiwanese Han, Taiwanese aborigines, southern Chinese and Southeast Asians. Additional data from linguistics, social surveys and archeology also suggest that Hakka and Hoklo populations originated primarily in southern China. Recent publications indicate that the method of using family pedigree books to trace the origin of Hakka and Hoklo to northern China are questionable. Biologically, Taiwanese Han groups are most close to the southern Han group in China. In short, it is highly unlikely that Hakka and Hoklo populations in Taiwan and China are descendants of migrants of northern Chinese. Probably, there are no more than 15-20% of Taiwanese Hakka and Hoklo whose ancestors originated from the northern Han of China. The majority of ancestors (65-70%) might from the southern groups, originally living in southern China, and the other 15% are descended from Taiwanese aborigines.

 

 

* Origin of Hakka and Hakkanese: A genetics Analysis by Hui Li

Abstract: Hakka is a distinctive Han Chinese population in Southern China speaking Hakkanese. The origin of Hakka has been controversial. In this report, we analyzed Y chromosomal markers in 148 Hakka males. Principle component analysis of Y-SNP haplotype distribution shows Hakka is clusteed strongly with the Han in Northern China, and is also close to She, a Hmong-Mien-speaking population, while the general Southern Han is fairly close to Daic populations. Admixture analysis revealed that the relative genetic contribution 80.2% (Han), 13% (She) and 6.8% (Kam) in Hakka. The network of Y-STR haplotype of M7 individuals in all concerned populations suggested two possible origins of Hmong-Mien contribution in Hakka: One is from Hubei and the other is from Canton. The Kam contribution in Hakka is likely from Kan-Yue, the ancient aborigine of Kiangsi (Jiangxi). The frequency of 9bp-deletion in Region V of mitochondrial DNA of Hakka is 19.7%, which is quite close to She but far from Han. We therefore concluded that genetically the majority of Hakka gene pool shall come from North Han with She contributing the most among all non-Han groups. Regarding the Hmong-Mien character of Hakkanese, the genetic structure of Hakka shows their core may be Kim-man, the ancient Hmong-Mien. We hypothesized that a great number of Han people from North China join this population in succession. Southern Chinese dialects, such as Hakkanese may also be those languages of Southern aborigines at first, and turn to extant appearance under the continuance effect of Northern Chinese.

 

She

Photo from Cultural China

The She (畲) people are a Chinese ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They are the largest minority in Fujian province. They are also present in the provinces of Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi and Guangdong.

Language: The She language is a Hmong-Mien language. Most of the She today speak Chinese dialects, like Hakka. Those who retain their own language - approximately 1,200 individuals in Guangdong province - call themselves Ho Ne "mountain people" (活聂).

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup Distribution in Chaoshanese with and without Myopia by Qin Wang, et al.

Principal Component Map of Mmitochondrial DNA Variation

 

 

* Use of Autosomal Loci for Clustering Individuals and Populations of East Asian Origin by Jong-Jin Kim, et. al.

Least-squares Tree for Nine East Asian Populations and 43 Independent Diallelic Markers, Based on a Tau Genetic Distance Matrix

 

 

* Tracing the Legacy of the Early Hainan Islandersa Perspective from Mitochondrial DNA by Min-Sheng Peng, et al.

Principle Components Analysis (PCA) of Populations in Southern China and Vietnam

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Abstract: Hakka and Chaoshanese are two unique Han populations residing in southern China but with northern Han (NH) cultural traditions and linguistic influences. Although most of historical records indicate that both populations migrated from northern China in the last two thousand years, no consensus on their origins has been reached so far. To shed more light on the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese, mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 170 Hakka from Meizhou and 102 Chaoshanese from Chaoshan area, Guangdong Province, were analyzed. Our results show that some southern Chinese predominant haplogroups, e.g. B, F, and M7, have relatively high frequencies in both populations. Although median network analyses show that Hakka/Chaoshanese share some haplotypes with NH, interpopulation comparison reveals that both populations show closer affinity with southern Han (SH) populations than with NH. In consideration of previous results from nuclear gene (including Y chromosome) research, it is likely that matrilineal landscapes of both Hakka and Chaoshanese have largely been shaped by the local people during their migration southward and/or later colonization in southern China, and factors such as cultural assimilation, patrilocality, and even sex-bias in the immigrants might have played important roles during the process.

 

Population Analyzed

 

Two-dimensional PC Plot of mtDNA of Han Populations

 

PC Map of Y Chromosome of Han Chinese

 

 

* HLA Class III and Non-HLA Blood Genetic Markers in Chinese by S.W. Serjeantson, et al.

Phylogenetic Relationships Between Eight Chinese Populations, Based on Seven Polymorphic Systems

 

 

* Haplotype Frequencies at the DRD2 Locus in Populations of the East European Plain by Olga V Flegontova, et al.

A Two-dimensional Scaling Plot of FST-based Genetic Distances Between the Study and the Reference Populations

 

 

* Genetic Link Between Chaoshan and Other Chinese Han Populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Neighbor-Joining Tree

Neighbor-joining tree constructed by Nei’s genetic distance based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of Chaoshan and the other nine Chinese Han populations. Chaoshan clusters closely with the Mainland Minnan and the Mainland Hakka. All southern China-related groups in general cluster together and are separated from the China North group with the China Middle standing in between.

 

 

* A Study of the Genetic Relationships Among Aboriginal Populations in Taiwan ：Comparison of Pseudogene Sequences on Autosomal Chormorsome

UPGMA Tree

(P-Puyuma, Ta-Atayal, S-Saisiat, T-Tsou, R-Rukai, Pai-Paiwan, H-Taiwan Han, A-Amis, B-Bunun)

 

NJ Tree

 

 

* The Emerging Limbs and Twigs of the East Asian mtDNA Tree by Toomas Kivisild, et al.

Phylogenetic Reconstruction and Geographic Distribution of Haplogroup M7

 

Phylogeography of Haplogroup A

 

 

* Analysis of East Asia Genetic Substructure Using Genome-Wide SNP Arrays by Chao Tian, et al.

Principal Component Analyses of Substructure in a Diverse Set of Subjects of East Asian Descent

 

 

* More Genetic Sharing among the Population of Taiwan than Expected: A plain tribes (Pinpu) perspective by Marie Lin, et al.

Mitochondrial DNA (Neighbor Joining Phylogram)

 

 

* A Homeland or Hostland? The power and challenges of genetic studies on Austronesian’s expansion by Mutsu Hsu and Shu-Juo Chen

Neighbor-joining Tree of Taiwan AN Populations, East Asians, Southeast Asians and Other Populations Worldwide (from Chu et al. 2001)

 

Neighbor-joining (NJ) Tree for the Nine Taiwan AN Populations and Other Asian and African Populations (from Tajima et al. 2003)

Ami showed difference with other eight populations (including Yami)

 

 

* A Genetic Analysis of the Sakishima Islanders Reveals No Relationship With Taiwan Aborigines but Shared Ancestry With Ainu and Main-Island Japanese by Hirotaka Matsukusa, et al.

The Neighbor Joining (NJ) Tree for 15 East and Southeast Asian Populations Constructed Based on mtDNA HVI Nucleotide Sequences

 

The Neighbor Joining (NJ) Tree for 15 East and Southeast Asian Populations Constructed Based on Seven Y-STR Loci

 

The Neighbor Joining (NJ) Tree for 10 East and Southeast Asian Populations Constructed Based on Nine A-STR Loci

 

 

* Ethnic-specific Prevalence of Hepatitis B/C Virus Infection in Pin-Jen, Taiwan by HW Lai, et al.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to estimate prevalence rate of hepatitis B/C virus infection by three ethnic groups including Hakka, Minnan, and Mainlander in Taiwan where there was a high incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma.

METHODS: We enrolled a total of 5007 people aged 30 years or older who participated in Li-Shin Out-Reaching Neighboring Screening (LIONS) project in 2004-2005 in Pin-Jen township of Taoyuan county. The ethnic group was classified in the current study by using the criteria on the basis of the ethnicity of mother of participants. We collected the character of participants, hepatitis B/C virus infection, and life-style factors for the comparison across three ethnic groups.

RESULTS: The highest positive rate of hepatitis B virus infection was seen in Minnan descendants (15.1%), followed by Hakka descendants (11.4%), and Mainlander descendants (6.6%). The difference by three groups was statistically significant (P<.001). Positive hepatitis B virus infection declined with age whereas positive hepatitis C virus infection increased with age regardless of ethnic group. By using ecological analysis, the higher proportion of Minnan was positively correlated to the elevated incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) (correlation coefficient=.46, P=.03).

CONCLUSIONS: Our population-based study shows prevalence rate of hepatitis B and C virus infection varies with ethnic group, with higher rate in Minnan. This finding was consistent with the ecological result, the higher the composition of Minnan the higher the incidence of HCC.

 

 

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

 

Diagram of Relationship Based on a Cluster Analysis (UPGMA) of Mahalanobis' Generalized Distances Using 29 Cranial Measurements Recorded in 55 Male Groups

 

 

* Ethnic Related Selection for an ADH Class I Variant within East Asia by Hui Li, et al.

Haplotype Frequencies of the ADH1B Gene Region Including the Regulatory Region

(AMI: Amis, ATL: Atayal, CHT: Minnan, HKA: Hakka, CHS: Canton, WUU: Wu Chinese)

 

 

* 台灣人的來源 by 林媽利

* Taiwanese Hakka: Origin--Modern Biological Studies by Albert Chu

* 非原住民台灣人的基因結構 by 林媽利

* 台灣人和印支半島族群的關係 by 鄭昭任

* True History of Taiwan by Sim Kiantek

* 血統獨立by 沈建德

 

 

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Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is the most common cancer originating in the nasopharynx, the uppermost region of the pharynx or "throat", where the nasal passages and auditory tubes join the remainder of the upper respiratory tract. NPC differs significantly from other cancers of the head and neck in its occurrence, causes, clinical behavior, and treatment. It is vastly more common in certain regions of East Asia and Africa than elsewhere, with viral, dietary and genetic factors implicated in its causation. It is most common in males.

NPC is uncommon in the United States and most other nations, but is extremely common in southern regions of China, particularly in Guangdong accounting for 18% of all cancers in China. It is sometimes referred to as Cantonese cancer because it occurs in about 25 cases per 100,000 people in this region, 25 times higher than the rest of the world. It is also quite common in Taiwan. This could be due to the South East Asian diet which typically includes consumption of salted vegetables, fish and meat. While NPC is seen primarily in middle-aged persons in Asia, a high proportion of African cases appear in children. The cause of increased risk for NPC in these endemic regions is not entirely clear.

 

 

* Is Nasopharyngeal Cancer Really a "Cantonese Cancer"? by JT Wee, et al.

Abstract: Nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is endemic in Southern China, with Guangdong province and Hong Kong reporting some of the highest incidences in the world. The journal Science has called it a "Cantonese cancer". We propose that in fact NPC is a cancer that originated in the Bai Yue ("proto Tai Kadai" or "proto Austronesian" or "proto Zhuang") peoples and was transmitted to the Han Chinese in southern China through intermarriage. However, the work by John Ho raised the profile of NPC, and because of the high incidence of NPC in Hong Kong and Guangzhou, NPC became known as a Cantonese cancer. We searched historical articles, articles cited in PubMed, Google, monographs, books and Internet articles relating to genetics of the peoples with high populations of NPC. The migration history of these various peoples was extensively researched, and where possible, their genetic fingerprint identified to corroborate with historical accounts. Genetic and anthropological evidence suggest there are a lot of similarities between the Bai Yue and the aboriginal peoples of Borneo and Northeast India; between Inuit of Greenland, Austronesian Mayalo Polynesians of Southeast Asia and Polynesians of Oceania, suggesting some common ancestry. Genetic studies also suggest the present Cantonese, Minnans and Hakkas are probably an admixture of northern Han and southern Bai Yue. All these populations have a high incidence of NPC. Very early contact between southern Chinese and peoples of East Africa and Arabia can also account for the intermediate incidence of NPC in these regions.

Excerpt: Before the last ice age, continental Asia extended to Japan and Taiwan through two coastal landmasses known as Tunghailand and Nanhailand (from the Gulf of Tonkin to Japan) and to Borneo and Java through Sundaland (now the Gulf of Siam and Java Sea); now all are under the sea after the rise in sea levels (Figure 3). The original southern China aborigines (protoBaiyue) probably wandered freely along this coastal region, but after the ice age and the following rising sea levels, they became isolated on the islands of Taiwan, Hainan, Borneo, and islandic Southeast Asia. Some of these people were also believed to have migrated north and across the Bering Strait into Alaska, Greenland, and the Americas.

Origins of the Polynesians

 

 

* Cancer Mortality Analysis Among Aborigines in Taiwan by YC Ko, et al.

Abstract: Mortality among Aborigines tribes in Taiwan from malignant neoplasms in the 1971-80 and 1981-90 decades were analyzed. Sex and tribe specific standardized mortality ratios were calculated from death certificate data and compared with the number of expected deaths derived from the cancer mortality of the entire population of Taiwan. Mortality due to oral cancer was statistically significantly higher than expected among Paiwan men in the 1971-80 decade and among Paiwan women from 1971-80 and 1981-90; as was mortality from nasopharyngeal cancer among Bunun, Paiwan and Rukai men from 1981-90 and among Bunun and Paiwan women from 1971-80 and 1981-90; mortality due to stomach cancer among the Atayal, Bunun and Paiwan people from 1971-80 and 1981-90, among Rukai men from 1971-80 and among the Tsou and mixed group women from 1981-90; mortality from liver cancer among Atayal and Bunun men in 1971-80, among Bunun women from 1971-80 and 1981-90 and among Paiwan women in 1981-90; mortality due to nasal cavity, middle ear and paranasal sinuses cancer among Rukai men from 1981-90; and mortality due to bone cancer among Tsou men and Atayal women from 1981-90. Mortality due to colorectal cancer was statistically significantly lower than expected among mixed group men from 1971-80 and in Atayal women from 1981-90; as was mortality from lung cancer among Atayal men and Paiwan women from 1971-80 and among Paiwan and mixed group men in the 1981-90 decade. Overall, the standardized mortality ratio of all cancers in aborigines was a little higher than in the general population of Taiwan. However, differences for ratio or site existed in different tribes.

 

Bunun

 

Paiwan

 

Rukai

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Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

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HLA-B46

HLA-B*4601 Abundance

Dark Red = 7% or greater,
Red = 3 to 7%
Orange = 1 to 3%
Green = O to 1%
Black = regions not typed

HLA-B46 (B46) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the gene products of HLA-B*4601 allele. B*4601 resulted from a rare, interlocus, gene conversion between B62, probably B*1501, and a HLA-C allele. B*4601 is the most common HLA-B allele that does not have an origin within Africa, and estimated 400 million people in Eastern Asia carry a B46 allele. When found B*4601 segregates with only 2 HLA-Cw alleles, A limited number of HLA-A and HLA-DRB1 alleles suggesting that the allele recently expanded from a limited sized group within SE Asia. Extremely low frequencies outside of Eastern Asia are indicators of a recent expansion of B46 from a recently small population. The frequency distribution suggests the ancestral B46 population was in SE China, or, potentially Burma (Myanmar or Laos, untested). B46 in asia correlates with wet-rice farming. The exceptions are notable, it has been found in the Nivkhi on north-eastern Sakalin Island, the Ainu, and the Nivkhi-related (genetically) Tlinglet population of Alaska at trace levels. (For terminology help see: HLA-serotype tutorial)

 

HLA B*4601 frequencies

Population	freq (%)
Buyei (China)	21.6
Miao (China)	18.4
Han (2) (Yunnan, China)	17.9
Thai (in Singapore)	17.2
Southern Chinese (in Taiwan)	17.2
Chinese (in Hong Kong)	16.3
Hakka (2) (Taiwan)	15.6
Guangzhou (China)	15.5
Northeastern Thailand	15.1
Minnan (Avg 1 & 2) (Taiwan)	15.0
Middle' Chinese (in Taiwan)	15.0
Hakka (Taiwan)	13.6
Wuhan (China)	13.5
Maonan (Guangxi , China)	13.4
Chinese (in Singapore)	13.4
Vietnamese	13.2
Southern Han (China)	11.5
Shanghai (China)	11.2
Meizhou Han (Guangdong, China)	10.0
Shijiazhuang Tianjian Han (Beijing)	9.6
Guangzhou Han (China)	9.4
Nu (Yunnan, China)	9.0
Northern Chinese (in Taiwan)	8.6
Pazeh (Taiwan)	8.2
Aichi (Japan)	7.6
Lisu (Yunnan, China)	7.2
Beijing (China)	6.8
Naxi (Yunnan, China)	6.1
Hui (Qinghai, China)	5.9
Northern Han (China)	5.7

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* Distribution of HLA Gene and Haplotype Frequencies in Taiwan: A comparative study among Min-nan, Hakka, Aborigines and Mainland Chinese by C.K. Shaw, et al.

Abstract: A total of 8,497 blood samples were typed for HLA-A, B, DR and DQ. Of these, 7,137 Min-nan, 714 Hakka, 535 Mainland Chinese (152 from North China, 211 from Middle China, and 172 from South China) and 111 Aborigines were randomly selected from Tzu Chi Taiwan Marrow Donor Registry (TCTMDR). Differences in HLA gene and antigen frequencies have been observed between various ethnic groups of the Chinese population in Taiwan. The phylogenic tree shows Taiwan Aborigines and Javanese cluster together; Min-nan shares a common cluster with Hakka, Southern Hans and Thai; and Northern Hans shares a cluster with Middle Hans. The separation between Northern/Middle and Southern Chinese Hans support the idea that Northern and Southern Chinese have different genetic background. Aborigines appeared to be quite distinct in the distribution of a majority of the class I and class II antigens. High frequency of HLA-A24 (60.4%) and relatively restricted HLA polymorphisms are noted in Aborigines. The HLA haplotypes with high frequency in Aborigines included A24-B60-DRB1*04, A24-B60-DRB1*14, A24-B48-DRB1*04, and A24-B48-DRB1*14, which are different from the other ethnic groups. Although the phylogenic tree separates Aborigines and Han Chinese populations, 4 out of 20 most common HLA-A, -B, and -DR haplotypes presented in both Aborigines and Han Chinese may reflect an ancient common origin or intermixture between early settlers of Han Chinese and Taiwan Aborigines. The results in this study are essentially a summary of the observed gene/haplotype frequencies and differences among various ethnic groups in Taiwan.

 

Thai People

The Thai (or Tai) are the main ethnic group of Thailand and are part of the larger Tai ethnolinguistic peoples found in Thailand and adjacent countries in Southeast Asia as well as southern China. Their language is the Thai language, which is classified as part of the Tai-Kadai family of languages. The term Thai people may also refer to the population of Thailand in general, and not only to ethnic Thais.

The earliest mention of the Thai, as a nation in south China called NAN-JOA (Nanzhao or Nanman), comes from Chinese records dating back to the sixth century BC. These early Thai emanated out of the Yunnan region and dispersed into the general area of what is today Thailand. These Thai peoples arrived in various waves and displaced the earlier native Mon and Khmer populations as they settled the region with a large group settling in Thailand during the Sung period of China roughly around 960 AD. The related Lao people split off from the early Tai-Kadai peoples and moved into Southeast Asia, mainly Laos, while another kindred people, the Shan, made their way into Myanmar.

The founding of the Sukhothai kingdom culminated in the emergence of the first Thai nation-state founded in 1238. Various conflicts in the Chinese-dominated region of Nanchao facilitated increased migration of the Thai, especially mercenaries fleeing from the Mongol conquest of China, and helped establish the Thai as a regional power. Successful wars with the Mon helped to establish the kingdom of Lan Na as the Thai increased their hold in Southeast Asia.

 

 

Origin and Migrations of Kradai-speaking Peoples

The Tai-Kadai languages, also known as Daic, Kadai, Kradai, or Kra-Dai, are a language family of highly tonal languages found in southern China and Southeast Asia. They include Thai and Lao, the national languages of Thailand and Laos.

The diversity of the Tai-Kadai languages in southeastern China, especially on Hainan, suggests that this is close to their homeland. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only in historic times, founding the nations that later became Thailand and Laos in what had been Austroasiatic territory.

The study of over 100 East Asian populations including 30 Kadai-speaking peoples had reached the following conclusions.

1. The Tai-Kadai-speaking populations show a great deal of genetic similarity although admixture with local populations did occur after its expansion.
2. A significant proportion of southern Chinese populations carry a signature of Tai-Kadai-speaking populations.
3. Taiwanese Aborigines are more similar to Tai-Kadai-speaking populations than they are to the other Austronesian populations, that is, the Malayo-Polynesians.
4. The clustering of subfamilies of Tai-Kadai-speaking populations correlates well with that based on their genetic similarity indicating limited gene flow between them after their separation.

Tai-Kadai-speaking populations originated in the southern part of East Asia and then migrated northwards and eastwards with Kam-Sui probably being the oldest.

External Relationships: The Tai-Kadai languages were formerly considered to be part of the Sino-Tibetan family, but outside of China they are now classified as an independent family. They contain large numbers of words that are similar in Sino-Tibetan languages. However, these are seldom found in all branches of the family, and do not include basic vocabulary, indicating that they are old loan words (Ostapirat 2005).

Several Western scholars have presented suggestive evidence that Tai-Kadai is related to or a branch of the Austronesian language family. There are a number of possible cognates in the core vocabulary. Among proponents, there is yet no agreement as to whether they are a sister group to Austronesian in a family called Austro-Tai, a backmigration from Taiwan to the mainland, or a later migration from the Philippines to Hainan during the Austronesian expansion.

 

 

Peopling of Thailand

Aside from ethnic groups representing recent expatriate migrations, and the earliest Negrito arrivals, the ethnic groups of Thailand are all believed to be descended from ethnicities associated with clades of Y-DNA Haplogroup O, suggesting an ancient homogeneous ethnicity in China some 35,000 years ago which, over time, spread out and independently evolved into diverse sub-ethnicities, branches of which found their way to Thailand at different points in history, employing different migration routes and modes of transportation, only after being infused with elements of other cultures along the way, via both exposure and inter-breeding. The result is an extremely diverse population of distantly related tribes with a common Asian heritage steeped in ancient tradition.

Negrito: The Mani are an indigenous tribe of southern Thailand, who make their home on the Malay Peninsula. While they speak a Mon-Khmer language, they are not Mon-Khmer people, but rather remnants of an earlier migration into the region. The Mani are the only Negrito people of Thailand.

Being among the least-known of all living human groups, the origins of the Negrito people is a much debated topic. The Malay term for them is orang asli, or original people. They are likely descendants of the indigenous populations of the Sunda landmass and New Guinea, predating the Mongoloid and Australoid peoples who later entered Southeast Asia. Alternatively, some scientists claim they are merely a group of Australo-Melanesians who have undergone island dwarfing over thousands of years, reducing their food intake in order to cope with limited resources and adapt to a tropical rainforest environment. Regardless of the theory of origin, geographically speaking, they probably came to Thailand via the lower portion of the Malay Peninsula, through present-day Malaysia.

Coastal Migration of the Indigenous Mon-Khmer Populations: The Mon-Khmer ethnicities were among the earliest aboriginal populations in Southeast Asia. The arrival of these ethnic groups likely represents the first waves of settlement in Thailand, although considerable inter-Southeast-Asian migration has taken place since their arrival, especially during the prevalence of the Khmer Empire in Thailand. Archaeologists suspect that the Mon-Khmer may have spread through Thailand throughout the metal ages, bringing rice agriculture, metalworking, domestic animals, and the Mon-Khmer languages to the region. They are believed to have spread through Southeast Asia from west to east along the coast, and then subsequently migrated inland along the rivers to the central plains of Thailand, long before the arrival of the now dominant Tai ethnic groups.

Comparative linguistics reveals that the Mon-Khmer are of Austro-Asiatic descent. Genetic research suggests that Y-DNA Haplogroup O2a is the primary marker associated with the Austro-Asiatic ethnicities, suggesting that some 35,000 years ago, the Austro-Asiatic people were homogeneous with the Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, and Hmong-Mien peoples (prior to the evolution of Y-DNA Haplogroup O into its present clades), sharing a common homeland in central China. The coastal immigration theory suggests that the Mon-Khmer probably first entered Thailand from the northwest, via present-day Burma, where a large population of Mon still exists.

Arrival of Malayic Peoples by Sea: The Malay were historically a sea-faring people, as is evident by their prominence on the islands of Southeast Asia, and they likely settled throughout the region via a mixture of sea and land routes. The Malayic migrations to Thailand took place over a vast expanse of time. The Mon-Khmer probably inhabited the Malay Peninsula prior to or contemporaneous with the Malay people, but long before the Tai came into the region.

It is believed that the ancient Malayic speakers were once part of a greater Malayo-Polynesian people who originated in Philippines and then expanded outwards into Sumatra and later into the Malay Peninsula, establishing substantial settlements in present-day Malaysia. They were part of an earlier Austronesian ethnicity originating on the Island of Formosa (Taiwan). It is believed that the Y-DNA haplogroup O1 is associated with the Austronesian people, thus suggesting that prior to their arrival in Taiwan, they were part of an earlier ethnicity in China which encompassed the Sino-Tibetan and Austro-Asiatic people as well. Archaeological evidence supports this theory, and suggests that the Austronesians may have come to Southeast Asia via boat, south from mainland China through Formosa island after settling for a period of time in mainland China.

Gradual Inland Migration of Tai Peoples from China: The Tai migration from the northern mountains into Thailand and Laos was a slow process, with the Tai generally remaining near to the mountainous regions within the region, where they were able to use their specialized agricultural knowledge relating to the use of mountain water resources for rice production. The earliest Tai settlements in Thailand were along the river valleys in along the northern border of the country. Eventually, the Tai settled the central plains of Thailand (which were covered with dense rainforest) and displaced and inter-bred with the pre-existing Austro-Asiatic population. The languages and culture of the Tai eventually came to dominate the regions of both modern-day Laos and Thailand. In more recent times, many of the Tai tribes of Laos also migrated west across the border establishing communities in Thailand. The Laotian Tai ethnic groups, often referred to as the Lao), are largely clustered in the Isan region of Thailand.

Comparative linguistic research seems to indicate that the Tai people were a proto Tai-Kadai speaking culture of southern China, and that they, like the Malay-Polynesians, may have originally been of Austronesian descent. Prior to inhabiting mainland China, the Tai are suspected to have migrated from a homeland on the island of Taiwan where they spoke a dialect of Proto-Austronesian or one of its descendant languages. After the arrival of Sino-Tibetan speaking ethnic groups from mainland China to the island of Taiwan, the Tai would have then migrated into mainland China, perhaps along the Pearl River, where their language greatly changed in character from the other Austonesian languages under influence of Sino-Tibetan and Hmong-Mien language infusion. The coming of the Han Chinese to this region of southern China may have prompted the Tai to migrate in mass once again, this time southward over the mountains of southern China into Southeast Asia via the mountains of Burma and Laos to the north of Thailand. It is believed that the Tai ethnic groups began migrating southward from China and into Southeast Asia during the first millennium A.D. While this theory of the origin of the Tai is currently the leading theory, there is insufficient archaeological evidence to prove or disprove the proposition at this time, and the linguistic evidence alone is not conclusive. However, in further support of the theory, it is believed that the O1 Y-DNA haplogroup is associated with both the Austronesian people and the Tai.

Over the years, the Tai intermarried and absorbed many of the other populations who co-inhabited and/or politically occupied the region, particularly populations of Mon-Khmer, Burmese, and Chinese descent. This fusion of ethnicity has led to considerable genetic diversity in the modern Thai people, and has resulted in a Tai population significantly different in culture, language and physical appearance from the Tai ethnic groups who remained in China.

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* The Origin of Minnan & Hakka, the So-Called "Taiwanese" Inferred by HLA Study by M. Lin

Abstract: The Minnan and Hakka people groups, the so-called "Taiwanese", are the descendants of early settlers from the southeast coast of China during the last few centuries. Genetically they showed affinities to southern Asian populations as determined by phylogenetic trees and correspondence analysis calculated from HLA allele frequencies. This corresponds historically with the fact that they are the descendants of the southeast coastal indigenous population (Yueh) of China and should therefore not be considered as descendants of "pure" northern Han Chinese. A33-B58-DRB1*03 (A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02), the most common HLA haplotype among "Taiwanese", with a haplotype frequency of 6.3%, has also been found to be the most common haplotype among Thai-Chinese and Singapore Chinese, two other populations also originating from the southeast coast of China. These observations suggest that this haplotype is the most well conserved ancient haplotype of the Yueh (從組織抗原推論閩南人及客家人，所謂「台灣人」的來源 by 林媽利).

 

 

HLA-A33

A33 shows two different distributions that can be discriminated by subtyping capability of SSP-PCR: A*3301 and A*3303.

A*3301 Distribution: The first distribution appears to have a Western distribution that introgresses into Europe as a result of the Post-neolithic periods. It is commonly found in linkage disequilibration within the A*3301-Cw*0802-B*1402 haplotype which can be extended to DRB1 and DQB1 in certain instances. The source of its general expansion appears to be the Middle East or the Levant, as it is found in the Palestinian population. B14 splits into B64 (B*1401) and B65 (B*1402) but the only Arabian people which show both antigens are the United Arab Emirates.

A*3303 Distribution: Certain alleles confound population histories. At the top of that list is A*3303. This allele appears to jump, literally, out of West Africa into South Asia. The point of origin is Africa, most likely central or western Africa given the low levels in East Africa (although much of East Africa is undersampled). In certain tested populations of the Middle East the level of A*3303 is either very low, or non-existent. Within East Africa Sudan appears to be the highest at around 2%. The frequency of A*3303 begins to rise in eastern Arabia (Oman, UAE) and then markedly rise in the Brahui and Balochi of Pakistan.

 

HLA A*3303 Frequencies

Population	(%)
India West Bhils	18.0
Pakistan Burusho	17.9
South Korea (3)	16.3
India West Parsis	14.0
Singapore Thai	13.3
India Mumbai Marathas	13.0
Japan	12.8
Pakistan Baloch	12.7
China South Han	11.5
Singapore Riau Malay	10.9
Singapore Chinese	10.1
Hong Kong Chinese	10.0
Chaoshan	9.8
China Inner Mongolia	9.3
Singapore Javan	9.0
India North Hindus	8.7
Taiwan Minnan	8.3
Taiwan Hakka	8.2

 

 

HLA-B58 (B58)

HLA-B*5801 is involved in allopurinol sensitive drug induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Allopurinol is a frequent cause of severe cutaneous adverse reactions, including drug-hypersensitivity syndrome, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis (SJS/TEN). The association with allopurinol sensitivity in JSJ/TEN was extremely strong in Asia, and somewhat less associated in Europeans.

In East Asians the carbamazepine and phenytoin induced syndrome is strongly associated with (B*1502 allele of HLA-B). A study in Europe suggested that the gene-marker is only relevant for East Asians. Based on the Asian findings similar studies in Europe were performed, sixty-one percent of allopurinol-induced SJS/TEN carried the HLA-B58 (B*5801 allele - Phenotype frequency in Europeans is typically 3%), indicating that while the risk alleles differ between ethnicities, the HLA-B locus is strongly associated or closely linked to a strongly associated gene.

 

HLA B*5801 Frequencies

Population	freq (%)
India Khandesh Pawra	15.0
Taiwan Hakka	10.9
India West Bhils	9.0
China South Han	8.9
China Inner Mongolia	8.8
India North Delhi	8.8
Thailand Northeast	8.4
Thailand	7.7
India Mumbai Marathas	7.4
India Andhra Pradesh Golla	7.2
India New Delhi	6.8
Oman	6.8
Russia Tuva (2)	6.7
South Korea (3)	6.5
Taiwan Siraya	5.9
India North Hindus	5.8
Singapore Riau Malay	5.0
Saudi Arabia Guraiat and Hail	4.6
Iran Baloch	4.0
Taiwan Pazeh	3.6
India West Coast Parsis	3.0
China North Han	2.9

 

 

HLA A*33-B58 Frequencies

Population	freq (%)
Chinese (Thailand)	12.6
Baloch (Pakistan)	11.1
Chaoshan (China)	8.1
Chinese (Singapore)	5.5
Burusho (Pakistan)	4.6
Hui	4.0
Mongolian	3.7
Kalash (Pakistan)	3.6
Korea	3.5
Yaku	3.2
Panthan (Pakistan)	3.0
Tribals (India)	3.0
Baloch (SE Iran)	2.9
Brahui (Pakistan)	2.9
Southern Han	2.8
Thais	2.5
Vietnamese	2.3

 

Baloch

 

Burusho

 

Brahui

 

Kalash

 

HLA-DQ2

HLA-DQ2 (DQ2) is a serotype group within HLA-DQ (DQ) serotyping system. HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQB1*02 are almost synonymous in meaning. DQ2 β-chains combine with α-chains, encoded by genetically linked HLA-DQA1 alleles, to form the cis-haplotype isoforms. These isoforms, nicknamed DQ2.2 and DQ2.5, are also encoded by the DQA1*0201 and DQA1*0501 genes, respectively.

DQ2 is most common in Western Europe, North and West Africa. Highest frequencies are observed in parts of Spain and Ireland, this distribution correlates with the frequency of two of the most prevalent autoimmune diseases. There is also a increase in DQB1*0201 in Central Asia, peaking in Kazakhstan and declining slowly east to west into China and finally Southeast Asia. DQA1*0501 : DQB1*0201. DQ2.5 is one of the most predisposing factors for autoimmune disease.

 

DQA1-B1 Haplotypes

	Subtype	DQA1	DQB1
DQ2	2.5	0501	0201
	2.2	0201	0202
	2.3	0302	0202

DQ2.5: DQ2.5 and the linked DR3 are associated with probably the greatest frequency of autoimmune occurrence relative to any other haplotypes. The haplotype is positively associated with coeliac disease, dermatitis herpetiformis, juvenile diabetes, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), Sjögren's syndrome, and autoimmune hepatitis (although significant proportion of the risk is secondary to coeliac disease). DR3 and/or DQ2.5 are linked to the following diseases: Moreen's ulceration, "bout onset" multiple sclerosis, Grave's disease and systemic lupus erythematosus.

DQ2.2: the haplotype is linked to DR7. A small percentage of coeliac disease are associated with this haplotype, and some disease causing gliadins are presented by DQ2.2. The haplotype is found at high frequencies in the Mediterranean and West Africa. The Eurasian geographic distribution of DQ2.2 is slightly greater than DQ2.5. Compared to DQ2.5, the freqeuncy in Sardinia is low, but in Iberia it is high reaching a maximum frequency of ~30% in Northern Iberia, and half that in the British Ilses. It extends along the Mediterranean and Africa at relatively high frequency and is found in high frequencies in some Central Asian, Mongolians, and Han Chinese. It does not appear to have an indigenous presence in the West Pacific Rim or the New World and DQ2.2 presence in Southeast Asia and Indonesia is likely the result of gene flow from India and China in post-neolithic times. The haplotype shows considerable diversity in Africa and this has translated to Iberia with 2 addition haplotypes, DQA1*0303:DQB1*0202 and DR7:DQA1*0201:DQB1*0303. The expansion of DQ2.2 into Europe appears to have been slightly later or biased by some constriction between Iberia and the rest of the continent.

DQ2.3: It is genetically linked to DR7. By serology DR7-DQ2 cannot discriminate DQ2.2 from DQ2.3 haplotypes, and therefore DQA1 typing is required.

 

HLA DR3-DQ2

HLA DR3-DQ2 is not spread evenly in the among humans. It is has a substantially higher frequency in the western world, except indigenous Native American. It is virtually absent in some Asian populations. Its current world distribution suggest that it spread from Africa with a wave that spread late in human evolution which reached Central Asia more recently, a possibility is that it spread with agrarian cultures that migrated from Africa.

DR3-DQ2 probably originated from Central or West Africa. DQ2.5cis haplotype is the second highest frequency haplotype in the Aka (N. Congo) and several other surrounding groups it is virtually absent in the !Kung. DQ2.5 primarily spread to the northwest and appears to have spread late in global spread of anatomically modern humans. The !Kung and Austronesians are reasonable marker populations earliest (eatward) spread out of Africa and those that spread rapidly, since the ancestors of the !Kung appear to have come from East Africa and share many Cw_B types in common with Austronesians and Northern Eurasians. DQ2.5 is at low frequencies in both of these populations, and it did not spread to Japan or the New World in pre-Columbian times. There is the possibility it spread to Arabia, but through stepwise expansion of small groups was lost from the DQ genetic repertoire.

DQ2.5 appears to be derived from DQ2.2 by gene recombination. One haplotype DQA1*0501:DQB1*0202 can be found in Africa suggesting DQB1*0201 evolved from DQB1*0202. The regions of Africa where DQ2.5 is at its highest frequencies indicate potential sources for western European haplotypes (e.g. Bedoin) but also indicate recent dispersion making precise evolution difficult to interpret. Other evidence for a west African origin/expansion is seen with the probable origin of DQA1*0501 from DQA1*0505, which is at relatively high frequencies in west-central Africa.

HLA DR3-DQ2 Frequencies in Asia: Based on frequencies in Central and East Asia, DR3-DQ2 appears to have spread eastward recently. Of particular interest to the West African/Central Asian comparison, not only is DQ3-DQ2.5 elevated in both places, but a linked HLA A-B haplotype, A33-B58, is found in West Africans and both the A33 and B58 alleles show more allelic and haplotype diversity in West Africa. This similarity would be remarkable if this haplotype came with migrations 50,000 to 130,000 years ago, since considerable equilibration and long range migrations are expected over this time frame. Ironically, there is no convincing route of travel between West Africa and Central Asia suggested by gene frequencies in the peoples between the two. This recent migation hypothesis is supported by HLA-A36 which shows a similar African/Central Asian bimodal distribution. One population that might have been related to this migration are non-caucasians of northern Africa.

DR3-DQ2 is notably higher in W. Mongolia, Kazakhstan and W. China. One eastern haplotype is "A33-B58" and has some punctuated distribution in Western Europe at relatively low levels, and is also in extreme disequilibrium where it is found, elsewhere. In Thailand it is elevated, particularly in the Thai Chinese, but in the south and most parts of Indonesia its frequency is zero. Elevated DR3-DQ2 levels in the Muong suggest a similar North to South spread.

DR3-DQ2 presence in the Koreans and lack thereof in the Japanese suggest a recent spread into Western Pacific Rim of Asia. By HLA, Y chromosome, or mitochondrial DNA the Japanese are about 60-85% of post-Jōmon period Korean origin, and the level of DR3-DQ2 in Japanese is about 1/10th that of Koreans suggesting that DR3-DQ2 did not spread in the Yayoi and that it spread recently with Mongol spread in Eastern Asia, it is rare both east and south of China (except in regions with strong historic migrations of Chinese), rare in Indigenous Austronesians, and isolated Indigeonous American groups.

The Importance of the Estimates: Currently, in assessing diseases like coeliac disease a definite diagnosis is often not possible and statistical considerations are relied upon. The knowledge of frequencies in populations, particularly among ancestors of immigrants can aid patient and physician as to the potential risks. An example, one publication states that the western regions of Ireland have the highest coeliac disease rate in the world. Plotting the frequency of DQ2.5 from any part of Western Europe to the Irish one sees the frequency gradient progressing toward the north and west of Ireland; therefore, a high rate of coeliac disease is not unexpected in Western Ireland. People with many common ancestors from Ireland share similar risks of disease.

In the case of juvenile diabetes a clear distinction of DR3-DQ2 from DR7-DQ2 is necessary because both DR3 and DQ2 confer risk of disease. And DR3-DQ2/DR4-DQ8 individuals who have type 1 diabetes (late onset) are often mistaken for type-2 diabetes.

 

DR3 and DQ2.5 Levels in Asians (%)

Reference	DR17	DRB1	Haplo.	Estimated
Population	(DR3)	0301	DR3DQ2	DQ2.5
Kazakh	13.1			13.1
Uygar (China)	14.0		12.6	12.6
Tsaatan (Mongolia)	12.5			12.5
Khalka (Mongolia)	9.0		11.5	11.5
Australo (N.S.Wales)			11.4	11.4
Iranian	10.0		10.0	10.0
Muong (Viet Nam)	12.7		9.8	9.8
Oold (Mongolia)			8.7	8.7
Jing (China)			8.1	8.1
N.W. Han (China)	7.6		7.6	7.6
Mansi (Russia)		7.4	7.4	7.4
N.India	7.4		7.4	7.4
Iran (Yadz)	5.4		5.4	5.4
Hanoi (Viet Nam)	4.4		4.0	4.0
Buryat (Siberia)		4.0	4.0	4.0
Shangdong (China)			3.6	3.6
Korean		2.9	2.9	2.9

 

Kazakh

 

Uygar

 

Khalka

 

Iranian

 

Frequencies in Europe: In identifying DR3-DQ2 studies of DR3 and DQ8 frequencies, when DQ2.5 frequencies are not clear, are helpful. DQ8 is helpful because of the strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) of the "super B8" haplotype (HLA A1-B8-DR3-DQ2).

European DR3-DQ2 is ancestrally derived from Africa, probably from Southwestern Europe or the Levant (in which DQ2.5 may have undergone negative, coeliac disease, selection during the holocene). Since the last glacial maximum there appears to be two sources of DR3-DQ2. The first, propagating "super b8" is from Iberia into much of western and central Europe. The second, propagating A30-B18-DR3-DQ2, is from Africa into Sardinia, Iberia, France and Italy.

Anti-node in Western Europe. DR3-DQ2 was probably the predominant HLA haplotype in the early holocene Western and Central Europe, archaeological studies of France, particularly of the Paris Basin region indicate a cultural shift that occurs as a result of the neolithic revolution. In this region of France DR3-DQ2 specifically associated with super-B8 forms an anti-node of frequencies, whereas HLA types more common in Italy, Greece and the middle east are more common within this region of France. Other haplotypes indicate this introgression was significant over and the primary wheat farming regions of Europe.

Multiple Nodes. Because of the central location of the anti-node, the center of expansion of DR3-DQ2 with the recolonization of western Europe after the last glacial maximum has been obscured. However, the frequency is still high within the Basque of NE Spain, including some Super-B8 haplotype. The highest frequency of this node is in Western Ireland. Despite its high frequency Ireland is not likely the source of the haplotype in European, but a region that has been least disturbed by the negative selection of wheat culture and migrations. Much of Ireland was covered in glacial ice in the late paleolithic and few exploitable resources. Colonization started about 10500 years ago, whereas neolithization started about 6500 years ago and was dominated by cattle culture with some wheat and minor barley cultivation. The paleontology of Europe during the last glacial maximum suggests that the most likely places of origin are NE Iberia, Southern France and new ice-core evidence suggests that final spread northward probably occurred after Younger Dryas.

 

HLA A33-B58-DR3-DQ2

A33-B58-DR3-DQ2: One haplotype stands out, the A33-B58-DR3-DQ2 haplotype which is found in West Africa, in Sudan, and Pakistan, scattered along West Indias coast, the Turkic republics and appears to have recently introgressed into Korea (post-Yayoi period of Japan) and China. So recent arrival into Asia that the level of HLA DR3-DQ2 in Korea is 2.9%. Korea is the major recent source of Japanese genes, by the Yayoi period that lasted from 3000 to 1600 years ago approximately 3/4ths of Japanese genetic makeup is attributed to this migration. And yet there is trace DR3-DQ2 in the Japanese, none in the Ainu nor many other indigeonous Siberian groups.

 

 

HLA Gene Frenquencies from the Origin of Minnan and Hakka, the So-Called "Taiwanese", Inferred by HLA Study by M. Lin, et al.

	HLA	Minnan	Hakka
DR3-DQ2	DRB1*03	7.4	8.6
	DQB1*02	8.8	10.6

 

 

* The Origin of Minnan & Hakka, the So-Called "Taiwanese" Inferred by HLA Study by M. Lin

Discussion: Because of the high degree of the polymorphism of HLA system, it is a useful genetic marker for the characterization of human populations and analysis of their relationships for anthropological purposes. Differences in the distribution of HLA alleles among various human populations are more marked when compared to other genetic markers. This becomes even more obvious if HLA haplotypes (particular combinations of alleles) are used as an index. It is interesting that many haplotypes were found to have a unique organization of HLA genes that have been well-conserved through thousands of years and also each characteristic haplotype shows a limited regional distribution. Therefore the HLA haplotype is a powerful marker and is useful for surveys among closely related ethnic groups (8). Family studies have been found to be the best method for studying multilocus HLA haplotype distribution in Taiwan, this studies is the first report based on family study in “Taiwanese” (Minnan and Hakka).

A33-B58-DRB1*03 was found to be the most common and also the best conserved A-B-DR three-locus haplotype among “Taiwanese” (6.3%), was exclusively related to the most common five locus haplotype, A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02 (6.3%). Similar to our results, the haplotype A33-B58-DR17 (DRB1*03) was also proven to be the most common haplotype in Taiwan among Minnan (n = 7137, 5.59%) and Hakka (n = 714, 5.10%) by the Tzu Chi Taiwan Marrow Donor Registry as estimated by the maximum likelihood method (7). The three-locus haplotype A33-B58-DRB1*03 has also been found among southeast Asians (Thai-Chinese 7.1%; Singapore Chinese 4.4%) (5) and northern Asians (Han in Urumchi, China 3.5%; Khalha in Mongolia 3.4%; Uygur in Urumchi, China 1.8%; Kazakhs in Urumchi, China 1.8%; Korean 1.2%) (9, 10). The five-locus haplotype has also been found in Thais (Present-day Thais 2.2%; Black Thai 2.8%) (11). It is interesting to note that the HLA-A, B two-locus haplotype A33-B58 among southern Han (n = 138, samples collected in Human and Fuchien) was reported to be only 2.4%, with no significant A-B-DR three-locus haplotype frequency at the 11 IHW (5), while in an earlier report the A33-B17 haplotype frequency among southern Han (n = 844) was 1.53%, and for southern minorities (n = 621) was 1.29% (12). In another report, the haplotype A33-Cw10-B58 was found among northern Han (n = 196, 3.1%), however, the most frequently associated DR gene with this haplotype in northeast Asians is more likely DR13 than DR3 (13), and the distribution of haplotype B58-DR3 was found clearly focused in southeast Asian population (8). Therefore, although three- to five-locus haplotype of A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02 has been found to be distributed among all east and southeast Asians, however, the highest frequencies have been found in “Taiwanese”, Singapore Chinese and Thai-Chinese, and these three populations are presumed to be the descendants on early settlers from the southeast coast of China. Therefore, this haplotype is probably the most well-conserved haplotype among these three populations.

The second most common three locus haplotype among “Taiwanese” in this study A2-B46-DRB1*09 (3.0%) has also been found in Singapore Chinese (7.7%); Vietnamese (5.2%); southern Han (5.1%); Thais (4.7%) and Thai-Chinese (2.4%) (5). The corresponding five-locus haplotype A2-Cw1-B46-DRB1*09-DQB1*0303 (2.7%) has also been found in Black Thai (8.3%), Dai Lui (Thais, 5.1%), and present-day Thais (2.1%) (11). This haplotype is thus characteristic for southern Asians (8).

It is well known from the results of HLA studies that there are genetic differences between southern and northern Han Chinese (7, 8, 14, 15). This corresponds well with the prehistory and history of China. The Central Plains (Chung Yuan) culture developed in the loess region of the Hunag Ho (Yellow River) basin in the north of China. And was dated to sixth or even seventh millennium BC from excavated millets (16). This culture went through the Shia civilization, followed by the Shang and Chou Dynasties and was limited to the north (north of Yangtze River). Only in the Chin Dynasty (221 – 206 B.C.), there was political control over the central region of the south gained (17). Recent new archeological discoveries showed that in the south of China there was an independent Yueh coastal culture (from the Yangtze delta to the Hong river delta in North Vietnam) in existence almost at the same period of time (18). However, the history of the south only began around 500 B.C. just before the battles between two countries of Yueh and Wu (17). There is a well known story about the King of the Yueh who slept on firewood for mattress and had gall hung over his bed to remind him of the bitterness of his defeat by Wu which finally enabled him to win the battle, and resulted in national recovery. The Yueh people lived along southeast coast of China (Chechiang, Fuchien, Kwangton and Kwangsi), and were named the Hundred (Pai) Yueh before the Han Dynasty (206 B.C – 220 A.D.) due to the great diversity of local cultures. Not very much Yueh history has been available from Chinese history (of the Central Plains) apart from battles between Yueh and Wu during the Spring and Autumn Warring States Period, and the dispersion of part of the Yueh peoples to the north during the Han Dynasty, since in Chinese history populations other than those of the Central Plains have considered as “barbarians” (17, 19). The Minnan (Min) were one of the ethnic groups among the Yueh who lived in Fuchien, and according to Lin (17) and Meacham (19) the present-day Minnan are descendants of indigenous Minnan peoples although probably limited gene flow from the northern Han occurred during the Chin and Han Dynasties and also during the following several centuries, due to invasions of nomads from Mongolia in the north which caused internal migration from north to south (17). As the barbarian status of the Yueh gradually disappeared and they were finally given Han status in history, thus probably resulting in misinterpretation and erroneous self-assertion of present-day Minnan as “pure” descendants of the northern Han. In Chinese history, many ethnic minorities adopted Han culture, and many peoples from these ethnic groups often announced that they were Han, most likely because the Han culture was more dominant at that time and so being a member of a Han ethnic group was both beneficial and a source of pride in the past (17, 19, 20). This also imply to Hakka, as during South Song Dynasty (1127 – 1279 A.D.) or even earlier there were limited immigrants from Central Plains to southeast region of China. These peoples with their dominant Han culture influenced culturally and linguistically the indigenous Yueh peoples especially those who live in Kwangton. Subsequently few initial immigrants and the vast majority of indigenous Yueh peoples forming the Hakka ethnic group.

Two phylogenetic trees constructed by calculation of the genetic distances D and DA showed a slight difference in the order of clustering among southern Asians. The D tree appears to better fit into the history of “Taiwanese”, Thai-Chinese and Singapore Chinese, since they originated from the same area of the southeast coast of China but migrated to different places during the last few centuries. However, the trees constructed both by D and DA separated the southern Asian populations, including “Taiwanese”, from northern Han. Correspondence analysis of “Taiwanese” and many other populations also showed that there was a clear separation between the “Taiwanese” and northern Han. A phylogenetic tree constructed by HLA gene frequencies on marrow donors also showed that” Taiwanese” (Minnan and Hakka) clustering together with the southern Han are separated from the northern Han (8). Many other studies including HLA as well as other genetic markers such as immunoglobulins (22), blood groups (23), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (24) and microsatellites (25) also clearly separate the southern Han from the northern Han. A study on Chinese surnames and genetic differences between north and south China also separated southern Han from the northern Han (20). In that study, the southern Han cluster can be further subdivide into three subclusters: the lower Yangtze river centering around Shanghai; most of the Yangtze river basin; and the southeast coastal areas and islands off the coast (including Taiwan). Chinese surnames have a history of probably more than 4,000 years and are transmitted via the male line and can thus be considered as a Y-chromosome gene. The finding of southeast coastal subdivisions of the southern Han corresponds well with the history and populations of the Yueh. Also in that study, the map of the first two principal coordinates calculated by the gene frequencies for ABO, MN, and Rh(D) of 28 provinces of China plus Taiwan, it was revealed that there was a clear split between the populations of Taiwan and the southeast coastal provinces from all other parts of China, suggesting that “Taiwanese” and its originating southeast coastal populations (Yueh peoples) might be genetically distinct from the others.

These genetic data indicate that the southern Han are basically of southern origin and remain genetically distinct from the northern Han. “Taiwanese” who are descendants of the ancient Yueh peoples preserve the ancestral HLA haplotype A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02 of the Yueh. The genetic distance between “Taiwanese” and southern Han warrant further study because half of the population samples contributing to the HLA data of southern Han used in this study were from Fuchien (5).

 

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* Intergenic DNA Sequences from the Human X Chromosome Reveal High Rates of Global Gene Flow by Murray P Cox, et al.

Geographic Representation of Population Migration Rates Nm

 

 

HLA-A29

HLA-A29 (A29): this group currently is dominated by A*2902. A29 and A*29 are almost synonymous in meaning. A29 is a sister serotype of A30, A31, A32, A33, and A74.

A29 is more common in Western Africa and Southwestern Europe (the Iberian Peninsula).

 

HLA A*2902 Frequencies

Study population	Freq.   (%)
Spain Pas Valley	13.5
Spain Basque Gipuzkoa Pro…	12.5
Spain Catalonia Girona	9.3
Spain Ibizans	9.3
Tunisia Ghannouch	9.1
Saudi Arabia	8.7
Spain Murcia	8.3
Spain Minorca	8.2
Spain Basque Arratia Vall…	8.0
Spain North Cabuernigo	7.7
Portugal Centre	7.0
Spain Eastern Andalusia	6.9
France Corsica	6.0
Scotland Orkney	6.0
Spain North Cantabrian	6.0
England Liverpool	5.2
France South East	5.1
Ireland Northern	4.9
Mongolia Hoton	4.8
Mongolia Khoton Tarialan	4.8
Pakistan Karachi Parsi	4.4
Morocco 'berber' Nador Me…	4.1
Israeli Jews	3.9
India Jalpaiguri Toto	3.8
Belgium	3.7
Italy	3.6
Wales	3.6
Macedonia (4)	3.0
China Yunnan Han (2)	2.9
Greece (3)	2.9
India North Delhi	2.7
Taiwan Hakka	2.7
India Kerala Hindu Nair	2.4
Israel Gaza Palestinians	2.4
German Essen	2.0
India West Coast Parsis	2.0
Israel Arab Druse	2.0
Romanian	1.9
Pakistan Brahui	1.7
Thailand Northeast	1.6
China Harbin Man	1.5
Pakistan Pathan	1.5
Turkey	1.3
Czech Republic	1.4
Sweden Stockholm	1.4
Oman	1.3
Russia Nenets	1.2

 

 

HLA-B59

HLA-B59 (B59) is a hybrid between B*55 and B*51. B59 is more common in Japan, Korea, N. China and Mongolia.

 

HLA B*5901 Frequencies

Population	Freq (%)
Okinawan (USA Hawaii)	6.3
Japan (2)	2.7
Tarialan Khoton (Mongolia)	2.4
South Korea (3)	2.1
Gipuscoa Basque (Spain)	2.0
Japan Central	1.8
Casablanca (Morocco)	1.8
Hyogo (Japan)	1.6
N. Korean (Harbin,China)	1.0
Manchu (Harbin, China)	0.6
Naxi (Yunnan, China)	0.6
Girona (Catalonia,Spain)	0.6
Inner Mongolia (China)	0.5
Khalkha (Mongolia)	0.5
Shanghai (China)	0.3
Essen (German )	0.3
Southern Han (China)	0.2
Shij. Tian. (Beijing, China)	0.1
Hakka (Taiwan)	0.1

 

 

HLA-B67

HLA-B67 (B67) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the more common HLA-B*67 gene products. B67 is region specific recombinant haplotype formed by the gene conversion of B*39, an allele common along the Northwest Pacific Rim (Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Coastal Siberia), and B7, B22, or B27.

 

HLA B*6701 Frequencies

Population	Freq (%)
Osaka Region (Japan)	2.6
Hakka (Taiwan)	1.8
Japan (5)	1.7
Harbin Man (China)	1.7
Beijing (China)	1.5
Linqu (Shandong, China)	1.1
Siraya (Taiwan)	1.0
Portugal South	1.0
Oold (Mongolia)	1.0
American Samoa	1.0
Pazeh (Taiwan)	0.9
South Korea (3)	0.9
N. Korean (Harbin,China)	0.8
Arratia Basque (Spain)	0.6
Tarialan Khoton (Mongolia)	0.6
Shanghai (China)	0.6
Yunnan Han (China)	0.5
Turkey	0.4
Southern Han (China)	0.4
Tuva (Russia)	0.3
Chinese (Hong Kong, China)	0.1

 

 

* Genetic Landscape of Eurasia Viewed from Large Allele Frequency Differences by Hui Li, et al.

Genetic Structure of Eurasian Populations

 

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HLA-A11

HLA-A11 (A11) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A "A" serotype group. This group currently is dominated by A*1101. A11 and A*11 are almost synonymous in meaning.

A11 is more common in East Asia than elsewhere, it is part of a several long haplotypes that appear to have been frequent in the ancient peoples of Asia.

In infectious Disease: Associations have been observed between A11 and familial otosclerosis, pulmonary tuberculosis, leprosy, and cytomegalovirus infection with epilepsy. These and other studies suggest an involvement between A11 and secondary effects of certain herpes virus infections. A11 was also found increase in supraglottic cancer with poor 3 year survival. In osteosarcoma A11 was found elevated.

There is a strong association between anti-depressant induced hepatitis and HLA-A11. In autoimmune hepatitis, A11 has a synergistic effect, acting together with DR4 and DR3 to increase the odds of disease to over 300.

A11 is also part of a haplotype A11-Cw4-B35-DR1-DQ1 that is a second factor in the rapid progression of HIV. The involvement of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma primaruily as a result of Epstein-Barr virus reinfection does not appear to be a cause in this acceleration.

Epstein-Barr Virus Anomaly: There are at least a couple of forms of lymphoproliferative diseases that appear to arise from unresolved Epstein-Barr virus infection. Examination of the virus itself has lead to the discovery of strains that can all but turn off the A11-mediated class I response to the virus in A11 enriched peoples (see tables below). This ability to turn off the immune system and for the virus to remain active is a factor in carcinogenesis. Early studies of A serotypes revealed and association of A11 with Hodgkin's lymphoma and recent studies have shown a complex involvement of Epstein-Barr virus infection as a consequence of low A11 control over infection.

Burkitt's lymphoma eventually lead to the discovery of the virus, however this disease is more evident in Africa. An involvement in cytotoxic T-lymphocytes down-regulation in Burkitt's lymphoma was subsequently discovered, More recent studies show A11 is down-regulated, and that other genetic defects are a likely cause. The ability to present EB virus antigens revealed a defect in the process after antigen process but before TAP1 involvement. Other studies indicated that peptides bind A11 in delivery to the cell surface for CTL screening, but fall off, and are destroyed intracellularly. However, A3 and A11 can process and load antigens even when proteosome activity is diminished suggesting an alternative mechanism for loading which may benefit in recovery from some disease but impair recovery of others.

It appears that these and other viruses have learned to exploit some defect in the region surrounding A11 that allows the near complete shut-down of gene expression. Oddly, in Africa A11 is at very low frequencies, and homozygotes are rare, suggesting that other genetic susceptibilities may exist that steer the virus toward Burkitt's lymphoma.

 

HLA A*1101 Frequencies

Population	Freq.  (%)
Papua New Guinea Madang	63.6
PNG West Schrader Ranges	55.0
Taiwan Hakka	40.0
PNG Wosera	38.5
ChinaYunnan Naxi	38.0
Taiwan Tao	36.0
China Guangxi Maonan	35.2
China Guangzhou	33.8
Taiwan Minnan (1)	30.9
Thailand	29.9
China Wuhan	29.3
Taiwan Pazeh	28.2
China South Han	27.7
Thailand Northeast	27.1
Singapore Chinese	26.5
Taiwanese of Middle China…	26.2
PNG New Britain Rabaul	26.0
Pakistan Brahui	25.2
Australia Indig. Groote E…	24.0
India New Delhi	23.5
Pakistan Baloch	22.2
Taiwan Thao	21.7
China, Shandong, Linqu Co…	20.4
Pakistan Sindhi	19.6
Australia Indig. Cape Yor…	18.0
PNG Karimui Plateau	17.9
Singapore Riau Malay	17.7
Taiwan Siraya	17.6
China Beijing	16.4
Pakistan Pathan	16.3
China Inner Mongolia	16.2
American Samoa	16.0
Spain Basque Arratia Vall…	16.0
China Qinghai Hui	15.9
Russia Murmansk Saomi	14.0
Singapore Javanese Indone…	14.0
New Caledonia	13.1
Japan Aichi	12.7
Georgia Svaneti Svans	12.5
India North Hindus	12.5
Pakistan Burusho	12.5
China Yunnan Han (2)	12.3
India Mumbai Marathas	12.3
China Harbin N. Korean	12.1
India Andhra Pradesh Goll…	11.9
Taiwan Saisiat	11.8
Oman	11.4
Israel Arab Druse	11.0
South Korea (3)	10.8
Taiwan Tsou	10.8
Mongolia Khoton Tarialan	10.7
Sri Lanka Colombo Sinhale…	10.4
Georgia Tibilisi Kurds	10.0
Mongolia Khalkha	10.0
Australia Indig. Kimberly	9.7
India North Delhi	9.4
Japan Hyogo	9.4
Spain North Cabuernigo	8.9
Saudi Arabia	8.7
Russia Tuva (2)	8.7
Spain North Cantabrian	8.4
Japan Central	8.2
Romanian	8.2
Greece North	8.0
Ireland Northern	8.0
Taiwan Atayal	8.0
Jordan Amman	7.9
Italy North (1)	7.7
Italy Sardinia (3)	7.7
Australia Indig. Yuendumu	7.6
Mongolia Tsaatan	7.6
Bulgaria	7.3
Taiwan Taroko	7.3
Philippines Ivatan	7.0
Portugal Centre (2)	6.8
Australia New South Wales	6.7
Morocco	6.7
Wales	6.6
Serbia	6.5
Georgia Tibilisi Georgian…	6.2
Ireland South	6.2
Algeria(1)	6.2
Brazil	6.1
Spain Basque Gipuzkoa Pro…	6.1
Turkey (2)	6.1
Russia Northwest	6.0
Portugal South pop2	5.9
England Newcastle	5.7
Italy North Pavia	5.6
Israeli Jews	5.4
Sweden Stockholm	5.1
Finland	5.0
Macedonia (4)	4.9
Italy Bergamo	4.8
Morocco Berber Nador Meta…	4.8

 

 

HLA-A26

HLA-A26 (A26) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group. The serotype is determined by the antibody recognition of α26 subset of HLA-A α-chains. This group currently is dominated by A*2601. A26 and A*26 are almost synonymous in meaning. A26 is a split antigen of the broad antigen serotype A10. A26 is a sister serotype of A25, A34, A43, and A66.

A26 is more common in West Pacific Rim (Taiwan to Hokkaido).

 

HLA A*2601 Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
Taiwan Taroko	21.8
Taiwan Bunun	19.3
Japan Ainu Hokkaido	17.0
Taiwan Rukai	14.0
USA Hawaii Okinawa	12.4
Georgia Tibilisi Kurds	11.7
Pakistan Baloch	10.3
Oman	10.2
Pakistan Burusho	9.8
Pakistan Karachi Parsi	8.3
China Beijing	8.2
Pakistan Sindhi	8.2
Japan Central	8.1
Pakistan Brahui	8.0
Taiwan Atayal	8.0
India New Delhi	7.6
Bulgaria	7.3
PNG New Britain Rabaul	7.3
Taiwan Hakka	6.4
Georgia Svaneti Svans	6.3
Pakistan Pathan	6.1
American Samoa	6.0
South Korea (3)	6.0
Israel Arab Druse	5.5
Croatia	5.3
Taiwan Saisiat	4.9
Taiwan Tsou	4.9
China Tibetan	4.7
China Qinghai Hui	4.5
Iran Baloch	4.5
Russia Tuva (2)	4.5
France South East	4.3
Portugal North	4.3
India Andhra Pradesh Goll…	4.0
Taiwan Paiwan	3.9
Romanian	3.8
Jordan Amman	3.5
Saudi Arabia Guraiat and …	3.5
China Inner Mongolia	3.4
Georgia Tibilisi Georgian…	3.3
Ireland South	3.0
Singapore Javanese Indone…	3.0
Taiwan Puyuma	3.0
Czech Republic	2.8
Taiwan Pazeh	2.7
PNG Madang	2.5
Singapore Chinese Han	2.3
Australia New South Wales	2.2
China Yunnan Lisu	2.2
China Guangzhou	2.0
Portugal South	2.0
Singapore Riau Malay	2.0
Taiwan Siraya	2.0
India North Hindus	1.9
Ireland Northern	1.8
India North Delhi	1.7
Pakistan Kalash	1.7
Taiwan Thao	1.7
China South Han	1.6
Mongolia Buriat	1.4
Thailand	1.4
New Caledonia	1.2
Finland	1.1
Ch. Guangdong Meizhou H…	1.0

 

 

HLA-A34

HLA-A34 (A34) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group. (For terminology help see: HLA-serotype tutorial)

A34 appears to have expanded from the Middle East, with linkage disequilibrium with B alleles into Austronesia, South Pacific, Philippines and as far north as Taiwan (where it is found in the Taiwan Ami, Yami tribal groups but rare in ethnic Chinese nor in Hong Kong Chinese).

A*3401 when found outside of Africa is primarily found in the South Asia, Austronesia and the South/Central part of the West Pacific Rim (WPR). It appears to have made it to Eastern Taiwan's indigenous tribes (Ami, Yami) but not more north of this region. It has not been detected in any sampling of Japan. Over most of the East Pacific Rim region were it is found it is limited to 1 or 2 common haplotypes in strong linkage disequilibrium. This indicates its presence in the WPR (West Pacific Rim) region is the result of recent migrations.

The A*3401 migration from Africa is supported by its presence in East Africa and South Africa and by current models of human migration, this allele was likely represented in the first wave of immigrants. However in areas were mixtures of these alleles are commonly found, Persian Gulf region and India, A*3401 is relatively uncommon, scarce, or absent. The exception is Saudi Arabia, in which A34 is at 2.8% and among Israeli Jews at 8.8%. Some reports that both A*3401 and A*3402 are in the region, but questionable whether these are perpetually maintained allele frequencies are simply recent migrants.

A*3402 is more frequently found in the west, it is found in Iberia and along the mediterranean, but its frequency is low, the exception may be in the Levant, but it is unclear whether this is A*3401 or A*3402.

A34-B Haplotypes: A34 is in strong linkage disequilibrium in many areas of the world, but particularly SE Asia and Oceania. The most prominent of these haplotypes is A34-Cw11(1)-B56. This haplotype is found from Western Australia to Taiwan to New Zealand indicating a recent genetic linkage between these peoples.

Another frequently found haplotype is the A34-B61 (A*3401:Cw*04:B*B4002) haplotype. This haplotype has a similar distribution as A34-B56.

These haplotypes indicate that long range/oversees migrations were taking place in Austronesias (late paleolithic) prehistory.

 

HLA A*3401 Frequencies

Population	Freq. (%)
Kimberly (Indig. Austr.)	68.1
Yuendumu (Indig. Austr.)	44.0
Groote Eylandt (Indig. Austr.)	32.0
Rabaul (New Britain, PNG)	30.2
West Schrader Ranges (PNG)	29.2
Cape York Penin. (Indig. Austr.)	29.1
Ami (Indig. Taiwan)	21.9
Goroka (E. Highlands, PNG)	20.5
New Caledonia	15.5
Madang (PNG)	13.6
Ivatan (N. Islands, Phlippines)	13.0
Wanigela (PNG)	12.7
American Samoa	10.0
Wosera (PNG)	9.0
Riau Malay (Singapore)	6.0
Karimui Plateau (PNG)	4.8
Puyuma (Indig. Taiwan)	4.0
Javanese (Singapore)	3.0
Spain Catalonia Girona	1.1
Thai (Singapore)	1.0
Paiwan (Indig. Taiwan)	1.0
Taiwan Hakka	0.9
Thailand	0.7
China South Han	0.5
India North Delhi	0.5
Chinese (Hong Kong)	0.3
Chinese (Singapore)	0.3

 

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Hakkas Worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar.

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There was once a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesian, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, the Hokkien (Minnan) pronunciation of Ke (Hak).

 

Hakkas in Indonesia

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. In the early 20th Century new arrivals from Meixian joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak.

Bangka Belitung: Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province. They were the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000. Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well.

The first ancestors of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in 1700s from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have stayed on the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960s. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other regions, they were strictly banned by government before 1999. The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism or Buddhism, and significant number of Christian. A little number of them confessed Islam as some of them married Malays.

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generations. The younger generations speak much more Malay than the older Hakka generation. As Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words, where differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely, The Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still refer to themselves as Thong ngin as well as younger people and spoke Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Muntok area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to Jakarta. There are more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta who speak both Malay and Thong boi.

There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in China and Hongkong. They proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in Qingming.

Pontianak: Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.

The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

Singkawang: The hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speaks a different standard of hakka dialect to the hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu (Dabu 大埔), a district in Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas.

Jakarta: Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increases with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.

 

Hakkas in East Timor

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion, many Hakkas were killed. According to a book source, it was estimated that about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor.

Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their education in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had become successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation.

 

Hakkas in Malaysia

Hakkas form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. During his time, Chung Keng Quee, Capitan China of Perak and Penang was founder of Taiping, leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist, an innovator in the mining of tin and was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions, founded Kuala Lumpur and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.

In East Malaysia, they form a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah.

 

Hakkas in Jamaica

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica on 3 major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. Under the terms of the contract, free return passage was available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did. In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of Yellow Fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Less than 50 or these immigrants survived. The rest died of Yellow Fever.

Chin Pa-kung (a.ka. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.

During the 1960s-1970s, there was substantial migration of Hakka Jamaican Chinese to the USA and Canada.

 

Hakkas in Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.

As of 2008, the total population of Sino-Mauritian, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.

 

Hakkas in Thailand

There are no records for us to study when Hakka Descendants pioneered into Thailand. In 1901, Mr. Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. So, he tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the clubs in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 "The Hakka Society of Siam" was established and Chao Phraya Yommarat, Interior Minister then was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the society nameplate located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Mr. Yang Liqing was the President of the first period.

 

Hakkas in Singapore

The Hakka constitute 11.4% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Since their language is somewhat similar to Mandarin, albeit strongly influenced by Min-nan and Yue, they were long thought to have migrated from Northern China between the 16th and the 17th century. Recent genetic studies, however, have shown that the Hakkas originate from Southern China, like the other Chinese language groups in Singapore.

Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, unlike the Samsui women, those Hakka women wore black, rather than red headgear.

 

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Hakka Culture

Taipei County Hakka Museum

Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakkas have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine).

When Hakkas expanded into areas with pre-existing populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.

Unlike the majority of other Han Chinese women, Hakka women did not practice footbinding.

Hakka people built Tulou buildings which has been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

Martial Arts: The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist). Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practised by the Hakkas.

Hakka Kuen (客家拳) is a general term describing a variety of Chinese martial arts originating from the Hakka community of Southern China and is considered to be an important style within Southern Chinese Martial Arts.

The Hakka heartland is located in the inland part of Guangdong Province east of the Pearl River Delta. According to the Dragon style teacher Steve Martin, Hakka Kuen was influenced by the style that the legendary monk Gee Sim Sim See taught in Guangdong and the neighboring province of Fujian in the 1700s.

Regardless of the historical veracity of Gee Sim, the similarities between Hakka Kuen and the Fujian martial arts strongly suggests that the two are related. According to Leung Ting, the head of the WingTsun branch of Wing Chun, "Their common features are that during fights, pugilists of these systems prefer short steps and close fighting, with their arms placed close to the chest, their elbows lowered and kept close to the flanks to offer it protection. Another characteristic of these two systems of kung-fu is, unlike those of Kwangtung Province and Northern China, their boxing forms are rather simple"

The characteristic rounded shoulders and concave chest of Hakka styles are the features that distinguish them from Fujian styles.

Until the generation of masters Lau Shui and Lum Wing-Fay, Southern Praying Mantis was taught exclusively to Hakka. In fact, the general public of the Pearl River Delta referred to Southern Praying Mantis as "Hakka Kuen," according to the traditions of its Kwong Sai Jook Lum branch.

Other styles that are associated with Hakka Kuen include:

• Bak Mei
• Chuka Shaolin
• Dragon style
• Southern Praying Mantis
• Vagrant Style (流民派)

Hakka hill songs (客家山歌) are probably one of the better known elements of Hakka culture.

They vary in theme from love to personal conduct. In the past, they are said to have been used as a method of courting between young men and women.

Hakka Hill Songs are also used as a form of communication at a distance. Since Hakka people mostly live in hilly areas, song is used as a better means of communication than spoken words. The melody of Hakka Hill Songs tend to have higher pitch so the sound can travel farther.

Hakka Hill Songs can be made up impromptu, to communicate with others or to express oneself. The lyrics can also be made to contain puzzles, as a game or a more competitive nature. The challenger will answer the puzzle in the form of song of similar melody.

 

 

 

 

Hakka Architecture

Hakka architecture is a building style in southern China unique to the Hakka people. They are typically designed for defensive purposes and consist of one entrance and no windows at ground level.

The Hakka were originally immigrants from northern China who settled in the southern provinces. From the 17th century onwards, population pressures drove them more and more into conflict with their neighbours (called punti in Cantonese). As rivalry for resources turned to armed warfare, the Hakka began building communal living structures designed to be easily defensible. These houses, sometimes called tulou, were often round in shape and internally divided into many compartments for food storage, living quarters, ancestral temple, armoury etc. The largest houses covered over 40,000 m² and it is not unusual to find surviving houses of over 10,000 m².

The materials used for Hakka architecture can either be brick, stone, or rammed earth, with the latter being most common.. The external wall is typically 1 metre in thickness and the entire building could be up to three or four stories in height. Often turrets were also built to extend the range of defensive power and to cover otherwise indefensible points. Battlements were also constructed on the top floor for muskets. The gate was the most vulnerable point and it was usually reinforced with stone and covered with iron. A number of smaller gates followed, in case the outer one was breached. With the exception of a few excessively large forts, Hakka houses usually only had one entrance. The round shape of the walls, which became popular in later stages, added to the defensive value of the fortifications and reduced the firepower of artillery against it. A Hakka fort could withstand a protracted siege, since it was well stocked with grains and had an internal source of water. They often also had their own sophisticated sewage systems.

The architectural style of Hakka forts is largely unique in China and around the world. The typical Chinese house contains a courtyard and other than pagodas, does not often contain any structures higher than two stories. The origins of Hakka architecture have been traced to older forms of fortifications in southern China, as seen in Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms tomb models unearthed in Guangzhou, Guangdong and in Ezhou, Hubei.

Tulou: The Hakkas who settled in mountainous south western Fujian province in China developed unique architectural buildings called tu lou, literally meaning earthen structures. Because of the undesirable mountainous regions, the Hakkas set up these unique homes to prevent attack from bandits and marauders. The tu lou are either round or square, and were designed as a large fortress and apartment building in one. Structures typically had only one entranceway and no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function - the first hosts a well and livestock, the second is for food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu lou can be found mostly in south western Fujian and southern Jiangxi provinces. Tulou buildings have been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

The largest communities of Hakkas worldwide, live mostly in eastern Guangdong, in particular the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) Area, whereas most the oversea descended Hakkas came from Huizhou. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning（興寧） and Meixian（梅縣） area developed a non-fortress like unique architectural styles, most notably the weilongwu (圍龍屋) and sijiaolou (四角樓).

 

 

Hakka Cuisine

Hakka Cuisine (客家菜): The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are owned by Hakkas.

The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜). While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Offal in China was/is also more expensive than meat, as was/is fatty pork more expensive than lean pork. Offal was/is a premier food in China. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and many Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet.

Famous Hakka dishes include:

The dish is stir-fried, seasoned with light soy sauce, salt, sugar and sometimes rice wine or vinegar (depending on taste).

Hakka food also includes takes on other traditional Chinese dishes, just as other Chinese ethnic groups do.

 

客家菜: 你一定要學會的75道經典好滋味 by 邱寶郎

 

 

六堆回味: 屏東六堆客家地區傳統老店 by 徐麗雯

 

 

 

 

粄條

粄條是流行於華南的客家美食。是大米類副食產品。由於「粄」字較少人使用，所以有「板條」之類的俗寫。

台灣南部高雄美濃，舊稱六堆，是客家知名聚落，通稱粄條為面帕粄：面帕是客家語：手巾意思；因初製品自蒸籠內取出，形狀方正似手巾故得名。

製作: 選擇在來米品種，磨製成米漿，澆灌於平底鍋皿平均鋪放，再將平底鍋皿置放於蒸籠內蒸熟，形成一潔白之薄膜般晶瑩剔透米副食成品，切成細長條即是粄條；佐以甜麵醬、辣醬、蒜汁、蝦米、豬雞肉絲佐食，清香可口營養，易於消化，老少咸宜。現更在米漿內加入蔬菜汁、紅蘿蔔汁蒸成淺綠、粉紅蔬菜粄條；加入墨魚汁變化成地中海式黑義大利海鮮粄條。閩南小吃鼎邊趖省略蒸過程，直接將米漿倒入炒鍋邊沿形成薄膜，再以鍋鏟鏟進鍋中沸湯內；閩南地區食用粿條也就是粄條。

越南河粉: 印度支那（今稱中南半島）盛產稻米，類似粄條製品當地人稱為河粉。出身太平軍，於1884年清法戰爭在越南領導黑旗軍大勝法軍的廣東客家籍領袖、英雄劉永福即嗜吃河粉(粄條)，一餐可吃數大碗。

 

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Prominent Hakkas

The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

Hakkas were active during the Taiping Rebellion [Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references], the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian Uprising, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Xiuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces. The hugely disciplined Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured stoutly-defended towns and cities from the Qing defenders. In 1851, less than a year after the uprising, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 太平天囯 was established. It had, at one stage, occupied one-third of China, and almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. The kingdom lasted for eleven years.

Hakkas continue to play prominent roles during the revolutionary and republican years of Kuomintang, as well as during the Chinese Civil War between Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, to which many of the leaders on both sides are Hakkas.

Lee Kuan Yew, Sun Yat Sen, and Deng Xiao Ping were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine.

Hakkas' influence is also evident in Guangdong, China, where the "Hakka Gang" "客家帮" has consistently dominated the provincial government. Presently, the governor, Huang Huahua, and four deputy governors are Hakkas.

 

 

Revolutionaries and Politicians

 

Sun Yatsen

Sun Yatsen (孫中山; 1886-1925; Zhongshan, Guangdong) was a Chinese revolutionary and political leader. As the foremost pioneer of Nationalist China, Sun is frequently referred to as the Father of the Nation. Sun played an instrumental role in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty in October 1911, the last imperial dynasty of China. He was the first provisional president when the Republic of China (ROC) was founded in 1912 and later co-founded the Kuomintang (KMT) where he served as its first leader.

 

Soong May-ling

Soong May-ling (宋美齡; 1898-2003; Wenchang, Hainan), also known as Madame Chiang Kai-shek, was a First Lady of the Republic of China, the wife of former President Chiang Kai-shek. She was a politician and painter. The youngest and the last surviving of the three Soong sisters, she played a prominent role in the politics of the Republic of China.

 

 

Lee Teng-hui

Lee Teng-hui (李登辉; 1923-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Taiwan), was the 7th, 8th, and 9th-term President of the Republic of China. He presided over major advancements in democratic reforms including his own re-election which marked the first direct presidential election for the Republic of China. The first native Taiwanese to become ROC president and KMT chairman. After leaving office Lee was expelled from the KMT for his role in founding the pro-independence Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU), Lee has been outspoken in support for Taiwanese independence though not necessarily a formal declaration.

 

Deng Xiaoping

Deng Xiaoping (鄧小平; 1904-1997; Guang An, Sichuan), a prominent Chinese revolutionary, politician, pragmatist and reformer, as well as the late leader of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Deng never held office as the head of state or the head of government, but served as the de facto leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.

 

 

Lee Kuan Yew

Lee Kuan Yew (李光耀; 1923-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Singapore), was the first Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore, from 1959 to 1990. He is an overseas Chinese belonging to the Hakka ethnic group.

 

 

 

 

Other Prominent Hakkas

Chow Yun-Fat (周潤發) is a Hong Kong actor. He is best known in Asia for his collaboration with filmmaker John Woo in heroic bloodshed genre films A Better Tomorrow, The Killer, and Hard-Boiled; and to the West for his role as King Rama IV in Anna and the King. He mainly plays in dramatic films and has won three Hong Kong Film Awards for "Best Actor" and two Golden Horse Awards for "Best Actor" in Taiwan.

Of Hakka origins, he grew up in a farming community on Lamma Island.

 

Aw Boon Haw (胡文虎) was a Burmese Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist best known for introducing Tiger Balm. His family was of Hakka descent and his ancestors were from Yongding County in Fujian Province. Haw later migrated to Singapore, where he began the business of Tiger Red Balm with his brother, Aw Boon Par.

Haw founded several newspapers, including Sin Chew Jit Poh (星洲日報) and Guang Ming Daily (光明日報), which are both based in Malaysia today. Sing Tao Daily (星島日報) dates back to 1938 and is currently based in Hong Kong.

 

Jimmy Choo is a London-based luxury fashion designer best known for his hand-made women's shoes, Jimmy Choo Ltd.

Choo is a Malaysian citizen of Hakka Chinese descent, who was born in Penang in 1961 into a family of shoemakers. He made his first shoe when he was 11 years old. He is perhaps the most famous of students of Cordwainers' Technical College in London, from which he graduated in 1983. The college is now part of the London College of Fashion. Choo has divulged that he worked part-time at restaurants and as a cleaner at a shoe factory to help fund his college education.

Jimmy Choo's beginnings can be traced back to his workshop in Hackney, East London, which he opened in 1986 by renting an old hospital building. His craftsmanship and designs were soon noticed and he came to the verge of international fame when his creations were featured in a record eight pages in a 1988 issue of Vogue magazine. Patronage from Diana, Princess of Wales from 1990 onwards further boosted his image.

In 1996, he co-founded Jimmy Choo Ltd with British Vogue accessories editor Tamara Mellon.

In April 2001, Choo sold his 50% stake in the company for £10 million. He has since been concentrating his work on the exclusive Jimmy Choo Couture line produced under license from Jimmy Choo Ltd. The Jimmy Choo London line, also known as Jimmy Choo Ready-To-Wear or simply, Jimmy Choo, is under the purview of Tamara Mellon. The ready-to-wear line has expanded to include accessories such as handbags.

Choo currently resides in London. He is currently involved in a project to set up a shoemaking institute in Malaysia, where his iconic status is often evoked to inspire budding shoemakers and fashion designers.

 

Naomi Campbell (born 22 May 1970) is an English model, singer, and actress. Campbell was born in Streatham, London, England. Her mother, Valerie Campbell (née Morris), is a former ballet dancer of Jamaican descent. In accordance with her mother's wishes, Campbell has never met her unnamed father, who left then-18-year-old Valerie two months after the birth of their daughter. Campbell is Black Jamaican and also of Chinese Hakka descent through her paternal grandmother of Chinese Jamaican ancestry (family name Ming). Of her appearance, Campbell has said: "My features are completely ethnic, and I'm proud of them."

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and can trace their origin to the Chinese labourers that came to Jamaica in the mid 19th to early 20th centuries. 75% of all Chinese indentured labourers dispatched to the British West Indies were sent to British Guiana in the late 1800s, but many later moved to Jamaica. About 96% of the Chinese who migrated to the Americas in the 1800s came from a small region in southern Kwangtung on the Pearl River Delta near large cities like Hong Kong. The very first Chinese Caribbean people were the 60 men aboard the Whirlwind, which set sail from Hong Kong on March 11, 1860.

Interracial marriages came almost immediately, and along with continued immigration the Chinese Jamaican community grew, so that it became the second-largest Chinese Caribbean population, behind only Cuba. The 1946 Jamaica census recorded, 12,394 Chinese Jamaicans: "2,818 China-born, 4,061 local born, 5,515 Chinese coloured," with the latter referring to multiracial Blasian people. The term Blasian is an American term and not of Jamaican origin. It is not used in Jamaican vernacular.

Assimilation has taken place through generations and few Chinese Jamaicans can speak Chinese today; most of them speak English or Jamaican Patois as their first language. The vast majority have anglicized given names, and many have Chinese surnames. The Chinese food culture has survived to a large degree among this group of people.

Since the 1970s, there have been a significant emigration of Chinese Jamaicans from the island, primarily to the United States, United Kingdom and Canada.

 

賴和（1894年5月28日－1943年1月31日），台灣彰化縣人，原名賴河，筆名有懶雲、甫三、安都生、灰、走街先。本職是醫生，但是卻在文學領域留下盛名，尤其是他的詩作，被公認是台灣最有代表性的民族詩人之一。賴和不但是台灣日治時期重要的作家，同時也是台灣1930年代作家所公認的文壇領袖，曾經催生、主編過《台灣民報》的文藝欄。由於他提攜後進不餘遺力，因此他的同輩楊守愚說他是「台灣新文藝園地的開墾者」與「台灣小說界的褓母」，並在「光復慶祝後二日」一文中讚揚他為「台灣的魯迅」。曾經主編新潮文庫的醫生文人林衡哲，則尊稱賴和為「台灣現代文學之父」。

賴和是閩南化的客家人，仍保有客家認同，但已經不會說客家話，曾賦詩道：「我本客屬人，鄉語逕自忘，戚然傷抱懷，數典愧祖宗。」

幼年接受古典漢文教育，後受完整日本語教育，漢語白話文全靠看書自學的他，堅持使用漢語白話文寫作許多小說、散文、評論、新體詩，是使用漢語白話文創作現代台灣文學小說的第1人，並嘗試將台語（台灣河洛話）寫入小說對話，是台灣鄉土文學和用台語做文學寫作的第1人。

他用漢詩（漢語古典詩）言志、抒懷，用白話文學作品啟發台灣人民的國民性。

賴和行醫小故事: 賴和本職是個醫生，也到處行醫濟世，不論是什麼他都願意替病人治療。就如孔子有教無類般，只是他是有醫無類罷了！因為這樣，許多人的性命都因為賴和的有醫無類之精神給保住。但是畢竟本職是個醫生，所以需要靠行醫來賺錢。可是窮困人家付不起醫藥費，賴和卻只拿出一本帳本上面記著「某某先生，某月某日因某病，某藥幾兩……費用某元」，所以很多窮困人家都很感激賴和。因為他並沒有強迫他們要馬上付出醫藥費，而是可以賒帳，但是，每年過節的時候賴和都會將帳本給燒掉。若是有窮困人家要來還債，賴和都會一概拒絕，也否認曾經有將這些費用記載在帳本上。

評價: 賴和悲天憫人的胸懷，兼具文采及內涵的優秀作品，對正在萌芽的台灣新文學無疑是一大鼓舞。賴和擔任《台灣民報》文藝欄主編時，也不斷對新進作家給予鼓勵和建議，受他影響的後進有楊逵、王詩琅、呂赫若、吳濁流、葉石濤等人。

 

 

* 殖民地醫學與 賴和〈蛇先生〉的再詮釋 by 邱雅芳