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Sichuan

 

Tourism

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

• Dazu Rock Carvings, listed as property of the Chongqing municipality
• Huanglong Scenic and Historic Interest Area
• Jiuzhaigou Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area
• Mount Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area
• Mount Qincheng and the Dujiangyan Irrigation System
• Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries

 

Sichuan cuisine (四川菜 or 川菜) is famed for bold flavors, particularly the pungency and spiciness resulting from liberal use of garlic and chili peppers, as well as the unique flavour of the Sichuan peppercorn (花椒). Peanuts, sesame paste and ginger are also prominent ingredients in Szechuan cooking.

Representative dishes:

• Kung Pao chicken (宮保雞丁)
• Twice Cooked Pork (回鍋肉)
• Tea Smoked Duck (樟茶鴨)
• Mapo dofu (麻婆豆腐)
• Fuqi Feipian (夫妻肺片)
• Water-cooked meat slices (水煮肉片)
• Dan dan noodles (担担面)
• Sichuan hotpot (四川火鍋)

 

The Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a bear living in the mountain ranges in central China, mainly in Sichuan province, but also in the Shaanxi and Gansu provinces.

SICHUAN

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Sichuan (四川) is a province in western China with its capital at Chengdu. The current name of the province, 四川, is an abbreviation of 四川路, or "Four circuits (political subdivisions) of rivers", which is itself abbreviated from 川峡四路, or "Four circuits of rivers and gorges", named after the division of the existing circuit into four during the Northern Song Dynasty.

 

Geography

The area lies in the Sichuan basin and is surrounded by the Himalayas (喜馬拉雅山脈) to the west, Qinling (秦嶺) range to the north, and mountainous areas of Yunnan to the south. The Yangtze River flows through the basin and thus is upstream to areas of eastern China. The Minjiang River in central Sichuan is a tributary of the upper Yangtze River, which it joins at Yibin. Plate tectonics formed the Longmen Shan fault, which runs under the north-easterly mountain location of the 2008 earthquake.

The climate is highly variable. The Sichuan Basin (including Chengdu) in eastern half of the province experiences a subtropical monsoon climate with long, warm to hot, humid summers and short, cool to cold, dry and cloudy winters, with China's lowest sunshine totals. The western areas have a mountainous climate characterized by very cold winters and mild summers, with plentiful sunshine. The southern part of the province, including Panzhihua, has a sunny, subtropical climate with very mild winters and hot summers.

Sichuan borders Qinghai province to the northwest, Gansu province to the north, Shaanxi province to the northeast, Chongqing municipality to the east, Guizhou province to the southeast, Yunnan province to the south, and Tibet Autonomous Region to the west.

 

Economy

Sichuan has been historically known as the "Province of Abundance". It is one of the major agricultural production bases of China. Grain, including rice and wheat, is the major product with output that ranked first in China in 1999. Commercial crops include citrus fruits, sugar canes, sweet potatoes, peaches and grapeseeds. Sichuan also had the largest output of pork among all the provinces and the second largest output of silkworm cocoons in China in 1999. Sichuan is rich in mineral resources. It has more than 132 kinds of proven underground mineral resources of which reserves of 11 kinds including vanadium, titanium, and lithium are the largest in China. The Panxi region alone possesses 13.3% of the reserves of iron, 93% of titanium, 69% of vanadium, and 83% of the cobalt of the whole country.

Sichuan is one of the major industrial centers of China.

 

Culture

Most dialects of the Chinese language spoken in Sichuan, including the Chengdu dialect of the provincial capital, belong to the southwestern subdivision of the Mandarin group, and are therefore very similar to the dialects of neighbouring Yunnan and Guizhou provinces as well as Chongqing Municipality.

The prefectures of Garzê and Aba in western Sichuan are populated predominantly by Tibetans, who speak the Kham and Amdo dialects of Tibetan. The Qiang and other related ethnicities speak the Qiangic languages, also part of the Tibeto-Burman languages. The Yi of Liangshan prefecture in southern Sichuan speak the Yi language, which is more closely related to Burmese; Yi is written using the Yi script, a syllabary standardized in 1974.

 

Demographics

The majority of population is Han Chinese, who are found scattered throughout the province. Significant minorities of Tibetans, Yi, Qiang and Naxi reside in the western portion. The Eastern Lipo, included with either Yi people or Lisu people as well as the A-Hmao also are among the ethnic groups of the provinces. Sichuan was China's most populous province before Chongqing was carved out of it, making Henan the current most populous. However, when including migrants, Guangdong has a higher population than Henan.

It was the third most populous sub-national entity in the world, after Uttar Pradesh, India and the Russian SFSR until 1991 when the Soviet Union was dissolved. It is also one of the only four to ever reach 100 million people (Uttar Pradesh, Russian RSFSR, Maharashtra, and Sichuan). It is currently 6th.

 

 

Southwest China

Southwest China (西南) is a region of China defined by governmental bureaus that includes the municipality of Chongqing; provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou; and the Tibet Autonomous Region.

 

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Tibetan

The Tibetan people (藏) are indigenous to Tibet and surrounding areas stretching from Central Asia in the North and West to Myanmar and China Proper in the East and India, Nepal and Bhutan to the south. Numbering 5.4 million, they are the 10th largest of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

The distribution of Haplogroup D-M174 is found among nearly all the populations of Central Asia and Northeast Asia south of the Russian border, although generally at a low frequency of 2% or less. A dramatic spike in the frequency of D-M174 occurs as one approaches the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of western China. D-M174 is also found at high frequencies in Japan but it fades into low frequencies in the Han populated mainland China between Japan and Tibet.

"Different racial types live side by side or coalesce. The predominant strain in most cases in Mongoloid, but many travellers have been struck by the prevalence of what they describe as a 'Red Indian' type (in Kongpo, among the Hor nomads, and in Tatsienlu). Others have noted a European, 'Hellenic' or Caucasian element which seems sometimes to be identical with the preceding type, and sometimes to denote a separate type altogether, especially in north-eastern Tibet. A dwarfish type occurs in Chala, a district of Kham. Though all these are but impressions, the fact that different groups exist is plain. According to travellers with no special claim to scientific knowledge, the brachycephalic type predominates in the farming communities of the Brahmaputra valley and in the south-east. In Ladakh, it would appear to have been to have been superimposed on a dolichocephalic strain (no doubt Dards). Northerners, as in the Changthang lakes region—the Hor and Golok people—are themselves dolichocephalic , on the other hand. However, anthropologists merely distinguish two types: one distinctly Mongoloid and of slight build, typical of Kham. Blue-eyed 'blond' types have also been observed in the north-east."

 

 

Qiang People

Photo from paulnoll.com

The Qiang people (羌族) are an ethnic group of China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, with a population of approximately 200,000, living mainly in northwestern part of Sichuan province. Nowadays, the Qiang are only a small segment of the Chinese population, but they are commonly believed to be an old, once strong and populous people whose history can be traced at least to the Shang Dynasty and whose offsprings are thought to include some portion of the modern Tibetans, some portion of the modern Han Chinese and many minority ethnic groups in Western China.

Early History: In ancient China literature, Qiang was usually used as a generic term for the non-Huaxia peoples in the west part of modern China. These peoples were frequently at war with the inhabitants of the Yellow River valley. Not until the rise of the state of Qin under Duke Mu was the Qiang expansion effectively checked. A Qiang leader, Yao Chang founded the Later Qin kingdom (384-417) during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history. But it should be noted that Qiang was not a distinct ethnic identity until 20–30 years ago. The term "Qiang" (the Chinese character for which suggests a shepherd) was used in old Chinese inscriptions to refer generically to the various nomadic peoples living to the west and has no direct relationship to today's Qiang. It has only been in recent decades that these people identified themselves as Qiang

The structure of the graph 羌 also reflects this view. It was composed of two elements: 人 (man) and 羊 (sheep), suggesting a sheep-herding people. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) and Wei-Jin periods (221-419), Qiang were widely distributed along the mountainous fringes of the northern and eastern Tibetan Plateau, from the Kunlun Mountains (崑崙山) in Xinjiang province, and eastern Qinghai area, to southern Gansu, western Sichuan, and northern Yunnan. It was during this era that Qiang revolts along China's frontier borders led to a full scale invasion of China's interior by Qiang people. This was a significant factor in the eventual disintegration of the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Later imperial Chinese government restricted the term Qiang min 羌民 (Qiang people registered with the Chinese government) to refer to sinicized non-Han people living in the Min River valley in Sichuan and used the term Fan Qiang 番羌 (raw Qiang) to refer to less sinicized non-Han tribes living in the vicinity.

Recent History: At present, the Qiang have a self-identity, referring to themselves as Qiang zu (羌族) and erma or rma (尔玛). There are about 200,000 Qiang people today in western Sichuan, predominantly in the five counties of Maoxian, Wenchuan, Lixian, Beichuan and Heishui, of the Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. On 12 May 2008, the Qiang people were heavily affected by the major earthquake, whose epicenter was in Wenchuan County.

The Qiang today are mountain dwellers. In these small valleys, people cultivate narrow fluvial plains along creeks or mountain terraces, hunt animals or collect mushrooms and herbs (for food or medicine) in the neighboring woods, and herd yaks and horses on the mountain-top pastures. In the past, warfare between villages was common.

From the linguistic point of view, all modern Qiang people speak one of the two Qiang languages, which are members of the Qiangic sub-family of Tibeto-Burman. However, dialects are so different that communication between different Qiang groups is often in Han Chinese. Lacking a script of their own, the Qiangs also use Chinese characters.

Legend of the White Stones: At the legendary time when the Qiang people moved into Sichuan from Tibetan Plateau, they placed white stones on every hilltop and crossroads , for they did not want to forget the route leading back to their original homeland. These piles of white stones also acts as a token of their affection for their homeland and the people they left behind at the same time.

Upon arriving at the territory of the local Geji people, the Qiang fought a losing battle. Jirpol, witnessing the condition that they were in, instructed the Qiang to find a strong white stone and attach it to rattan sticks and fight with this weapon, tying some sheep wool to the neck of the stick as well. Victory was on their side, and the Qiangs began to look upon the white stones as gods to be worshipped.

The Later Qin (後秦; 384-417) was a state of Qiang ethnicity of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty (265-420) in China. Note that the Later Qin is entirely distinct from the ancient Qin Dynasty, the Former Qin, and the Western Qin.

Its second ruler Yao Xing supported the Buddhism propagation by the monk Kumarajiva.

All rulers of the Later Qin declared themselves "emperors", but for a substantial part of Yao Xing's reign, he used the title "Heavenly Prince" (Tian Wang).

 

 

Yi

photo from yi.peoples.org

The Yi people (彝族) are a modern ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Numbering 8 million, they are the seventh largest of the 55 minor ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. . They live primarily in rural areas of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, usually in mountainous regions.  

The Yi speak Yi, a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese. The Chinese government has grouped the Nisu, Nasu, Sani, Axi, Lolopo, Pu, and tens of dozens of other peoples speaking more than six completely distinct languages with dozens of dialects into a single group called the Yi. Because of this, a Yi from one area may not be able to communicate with a Yi from another area; and may or may not even agree that they both are Yi.

Most Yi are farmers; herders of cattle, sheep and goats; and nomadic hunters. Only about one third of the Yi are literate. Most have no written language.

Of the over 8 million Yi people, over 4.5 million live in Yunnan Province, 2.5 million live in southern Sichuan Province, and 1 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all the Yi live in mountainous areas, often carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.

Legend has it that the Yi are descended from the ancient Qiang people of today's Western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from Southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today.

The Yi language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman Language Group of the Sino-Tibetan Language Family, and the Yis speak six dialects. Many Yis in Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi know the Han (standard Chinese or Mandarin) language. The Yis used to have a syllabic script called the old Yi language, which was formed in the 13th century. It is estimated that the extant old Yi script has about 10,000 words, of which 1,000 are words of everyday use. A number of works of history, literature and medicine as well as genealogies of the ruling families written in the old Yi script are still seen in most Yi areas. Many stone tablets and steles carved in the old Yi script remain intact. Since the old Yi language is not consistent in word form and pronunciation, it was reformed after liberation for use in books and newspapers.

Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China by Stevan Harrell

 

 

 

 

 

Nakhi

The Nakhi (納西族) are an ethnic group inhabiting the foothills of the Himalayas in the northwestern part of Yunnan Province, as well as the southwestern part of Sichuan Province in China.

The Nakhi are thought to have come originally from Tibet and, until recently, maintained overland trading links with Lhasa and India. They were brought to the attention of the world by two men: the American botanist Joseph Rock and the Russian Taoist doctor Peter Goullart, both of whom lived in Lijiang and travelled throughout the area during the early 20th century. Peter Goullart's book Forgotten Kingdom describes the life and beliefs of the Nakhi and neighbouring peoples, while Joseph Rock's legacy includes diaries, maps, and photographs of the region.

The Nakhi form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. The official Chinese government classification classes the Mosuo as part of the Nakhi people. However, despite similar origins and very striking resemblances from a linguistic point of view, the two groups are now culturally distinct, the Nakhi more influenced by Han Chinese culture, the Mosuo more influenced by Tibetan culture.

The Naxi language, or actually languages (also known as Nakhi, Nasi, Lomi, Moso, or Mo-su) is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by some 310,000 people concentrated in the Lijiang City Yulong Naxi Autonomous County (Yǜlóng Nàxīzú Zìzhìxiàn 玉龍納西族自治縣) of the province of Yunnan.

History: The Nakhi are believed to be the descendants of the nomadic Qiang, an ethnic group inhabiting the Tibetan plateau since ancient times. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, the Nakhi were known as the Mosha-yi, or the Moxie-yi. Only after communist rule in China did they call themselves Nakhi, which means "people who worship the black things of the nation".

Frequently harassed by neighbouring tribes, the proto-Nakhi then moved to head of the Nujiang River from the Jinsha and then to the Along River in the present-day province of Sichuan in western China. After being pushed south by other conquering tribes, the Nakhi finally settled in Baisha and Lijiang by 3 AD.

The Nakhi split into three groups while their ancestors were still in Baisha. The ones who remained are known as the Nakhi, those in Dali are known as Bai, and those living around the Lugu Lake are called the Mosuo. Even today, the three groups share similar customs.

 

 

Di

The Di (氐) were an ethnic group in China. They lived in areas of present-day provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan and Shaanxi, from the 8th century BC to approximately the middle of 6th century AD. During the 4th and early 5th centuries, they established several of this era's Sixteen Kingdoms.

The Di were eventually assimilated into other populations. The modern Baima people living in southeast Gansu and northwest Sichuan are descended from the Di. Genetic evidence of the Di can be found in a minority of people in Sichuan.

氐，是古代中國西北部少數民族之一，主要活動於今陝西、甘肅、四川三省的交界地區。

氐族的起源歷來說法不一。一說氐族與羌族同源。不過幾年前曾有說法，指屬於藏族（古代的吐蕃人）一支的白馬藏人，此民系認為自己的方言和標準的藏語實在差異甚大，連習俗跟典型的藏族有很大的不同，應該不屬於藏族而是古代氐族的直系後裔，但是此說部分的民族學家並不接受。

2000年以後的分子人類學研究發現，白馬藏族的男性Y染色體中攜帶D1-M15單倍群的佔壓倒多數。此種單倍群(D1-M15)南方和北方的漢族中幾乎完全沒有；同時藏族的此種基因大約佔一半左右，另外一半和漢族有相同父系基因。英文維基百科條目：Haplogroup D1 (Y-DNA)但以上基於分子遺傳學的發現並沒有為氐人的起源和演化提供任何直接證據。

春秋戰國時始以氐為族名，居於中國西北部。漢朝至三國期間，氐族曾兩度大遷徙，至關中一帶居住。其時還有如羌族的少數民族遷入關中。惠帝時代，氐人曾與晉相戰兩年餘，到十六國時晉室南下，氐人便在北方建立前秦、後涼、仇池等政權。

隨著長居於中國日久，在唐朝時代，一部分氐族人與吐蕃人相融合，而其餘氐族則與漢族或其他民族相融合。

 

 

Miao

The Miao (苗族) are a linguistically and culturally related group of people recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China as one of the 55 official minority groups. Miao is a Chinese term and does not reflect the self-designations of the component sub-groups, which include (with some variant spellings) Hmong/Mong, Hmu, A Hmao,and Kho (Qho) Xiong. The Miao live primarily in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. Some members of the Miao sub-groups, most notably Hmong/Mong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand).

Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples often with the connotation of "barbarian." This former meaning has not kept members of the modern nationality from self-identifying as Miao.

Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classified them according to the most characteristic colour of the women's clothes. The list below contains the self-designations, the colour designations and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China:

• Ghao Xong; Red Miao; west Hunan.
• Hmu, Gha Ne (Ka Nao); Black Miao; southeast Guizhou.
• A Hmao; Big Flowery Miao; northwest Guizhou and northeast Yunnan.
• Hmong, White Miao, Mong, Green (Blue) Miao, Small Flowery Miao; south Sichuan, west Guizhou and south Yunnan.

According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of Miao sub-groups live in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar due to migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam wars between 1949 and 1975, many Hmong/Mong people now live in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia. Altogether there are approximately 8 million speakers of Miao languages. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong/Mong-Mien (Miao-Yao) language family.

Archaeological Discoveries: Many Miao scholars believe the Dawenkou Culture to be Miao. They cite the pottery designs found in the tombs as examples. The designs are very similar to present day Miao embroideries. Combine this with the presence of Miao in Shangdong suggests the Miao's origin is not the south but the mouth of the Yellow River. It would also support the Miao's claim to the Shang Dynasty since Shangdong is part of Shang.

Lady Dai found in Tomb no. 1 at Mawangdui is believed by many Miao as a Miao woman. They cite the T-shaped banners draped over her coffin as an example of Miao burial practices and beliefs. This dispel the belief that the sinicization of the Miao was by force or even sinicized during the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang is a general under Xiang Yu meaning he commanded Miao troops and they are his base of power. When the dispute with Xiang Yu broke out Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo and Fan Kuai saved Liu Bang's life. This meant Liu Bang's support among the Miao was strong. The Han-Chu contention was not about a struggle between two groups of people but between two individuals. This explains why Miao beliefs and culture flourished during the Western Han. It would also mean that the Han nationality began when the Miao and Huaxia came together as one. The present day Miao may be the remnant of those who fled when Qin conquered Chu. They left before peace came and never returned. It would explain why Chu is acknowledged by the Miao as a Miao Kingdom but not Han given Liu Bang's base of power was former Chu in the South.

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

 

Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics by Louisa Schein

 

 

 

 

Miao Textiles from China (Fabric Folios) by Gina Corrigan

 

 

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Genetic Studies

 

* Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122 by Hong Shi, et al.

Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in the East Asian Populations Studied

 

The Frequency Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in East Asian and Other Continental Populations

 

The Map of Multidimensional Scaling Analysis Based on the O3-M122 SNP Haplotype Distribution

 

 

* Non-Beijing Strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in China by Xia Li, et al.

Abstract: In a 2-year prospective study of tuberculosis (TB) patients in China, the prevalences of non-Beijing strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis varied between Shandong Province (20.6%), Shanghai (27.6%), and Sichuan Province (45.9%) (P < 0.005). These differences may be due to factors such as human migration, transmission, or diversification and adaptation of the mycobacteria to different hosts.

 

 

* Polymorphism of 17 Y-STR Loci in Shanxi Han Population and Genetic Relationship with 13 Populations by MS Shi, et al.

14 个群体NJ 系统发生树

 

14 个群体聚类分析图

 

 

* Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation by Jieming Chen, et al.

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The cluster and stratification of the samples from the ten provinces of China, showing an evident north-south genetic differentiation.)

 

 

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

(Guizhou, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan)

 

Phylogenic Tree of 10 Han Subpopulations and 14 Ethnic Minorities

(Han Guizhou, Han Hunan, Han Sichuan, Yi, Tujia)

Han subpopulations: GS, Gansu; HLJ, Heilongjiang; JL, Jilin; NM, Inner Mongolia; ShX, Shaanxi; GD, Guangdong; GX, Guangxi; GZ Guizhou; H ~ N , Hunan; SC, Sichuan.

 

 

* Ancient DNA Evidence Supports the Contribution of Di-Qiang People to the Han Chinese Gene Pool by Zhao YB, et al.

Abstract: Han Chinese is the largest ethnic group in the world. During its development, it gradually integrated with many neighboring populations. To uncover the origin of the Han Chinese, ancient DNA analysis was performed on the remains of 46 humans (∼1700 to 1900 years ago) excavated from the Taojiazhai site in Qinghai province, northwest of China, where the Di-Qiang populations had previously lived. In this study, eight mtDNA haplogroups (A, B, D, F, M*, M10, N9a, and Z) and one Y-chromosome haplogroup (O3) were identified. All analyses show that the Taojiazhai population presents close genetic affinity to Tibeto-Burman populations (descendants of Di-Qiang populations) and Han Chinese, suggesting that the Di-Qiang populations may have contributed to the Han Chinese genetic pool.

 

 

* Polymorphic Distribution of Y-chromosome Haplotype and Mitochondrial DNA in the Bouyei People in China by Li Yong-nian, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in China and World Populations

 

 

* A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

 

 

* STR Polymorphisms of the Henan Population and Investigation of the Central Plains Han Origin of Chaoshanese by Li-Na Xu, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree constructed from Nei’s genetic distance based on the allelic frequencies of CODIS STR loci in 25 Chinese Han populations

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Population Analyzed

 

Two-dimensional PC Plot of mtDNA of Han Populations

(Sichuan clusters with Taiwan, Anhui, Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu)

 

PC Map of Y Chromosome of Han Chinese

(Sichuan1 clusters with Meizhou Guangdong)

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

 

 

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

 

Diagram of Relationship Based on a Cluster Analysis (UPGMA) of Mahalanobis' Generalized Distances Using 29 Cranial Measurements Recorded in 55 Male Groups

 

 

* The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers by Han-Jun Jin, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on FST Distances of Y Chromosome Haplogroups

(Han Chengdu clusters with Qiang)

 

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on RST distances of Y chromosome STRs

(Han Chengdu)

 

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia
Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

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History of Sichuan

The province and its vicinity were the cradle of unique local civilizations, which can be dated back to at least the fifteenth century BC (coinciding with the later years of Shang Dynasty). Beginning from the ninth century BC, Shu (today Chengdu) and Ba (today Chongqing City) emerged as cultural and administrative centers where two rival kingdoms were established.

Shu's existence was unknown until an archaeological discovery in 1986 at a small village named Sanxingdui (三星堆) in Guanghan County. It is believed to be an ancient city of the Shu Kingdom, where excavations have yielded invaluable archaeological information.

Although the Qin Dynasty largely destroyed the civilizations of Shu and Ba, these cultures have to some degree persisted and been inherited by people in Sichuan up to the present day. The Qin government accelerated the technological and agricultural advancements of Sichuan making it comparable to that of the Huang He (Yellow River) Valley. The Dujiangyan Irrigation System, built in the 3rd century BC under the inspection of Li Bing, was the symbol of modernization of that period. Composed of a series of dams, it redirected the flow of the Min Jiang, a major tributary of the Yangtze River, to fields, relieving the damage of seasonal floods. The construction and various other projects greatly increased the harvest of the area which thus became the main source of provision and men for Qin's unification of China.

Various ores were abundant. Adding to its significance, the area was also on the trade route from Huang He Valley to foreign countries of the southwest, especially India.

The area's military importance matches its commercial and agricultural significance. As a basin surrounded by the Himalayas to the west, the Qinling Range to the north, and mountainous areas of Yunnan to the south, Sichuan is prone to fog. Since the Yangtze flows through the basin and is thus upstream of eastern China, navies could be easily sailed downstream. Therefore Sichuan was the base for numerous amphibious military forces and also served as the refuge of Chinese governments throughout history. A few independent regimes were founded; the most famous was Shu Han of the Three Kingdoms. The Jin Dynasty first conquered Shu Han on its path of unification. During the Tang Dynasty, it was a battlefront against Tibet.

The Southern Song Dynasty established coordinated defenses against the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty in Sichuan and Xiangyang. The line of defense was finally broken through after the first use of firearms in history during the six-year siege of Xiangyang, which ended in 1273.

During the Ming Dynasty major architectural works were created in Sichuan. Bao'en Temple is a well-preserved fifteenth century monastery complex built between 1440 and 1446 during Emperor Yingzong's reign (1427-64) in the Ming Dynasty. The Temple's Dabei Hall enshrines a thousand-armed wooden image of Avalokitesvara and Huayan Hall is a repository with a revolving sutra cabinet. The wall paintings, sculptures and other ornamental details are masterpieces of the Ming period.

The Qing general Zhang Xianzhong, nicknamed Yellow Tiger, conquered Sichuan Province in the middle of the 17th century. A landslide dam on the Dadu River caused by an earthquake gave way on 10 June 1786. The resulting flood killed 100,000 people.

In the 20th century, as Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan had all been lost to the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the capital of the Republic of China had been temporary relocated to Chongqing. The difficulty of accessing the region overland from the eastern China and the foggy climate hindering the accuracy of Japanese bombing of the Sichuan basin and the city of Chongqing made the region the stronghold of Chiang Kai-Shek's Guomindang government during 1938-45.

As the Second Sino-Japanese War was soon followed by the resumed Chinese Civil War, and the cities of the east fell to the Communists one after another, the Guomindang government again tried to make Sichuan its stronghold on the mainland. Chiang Kai-Shek himself flew to Chongqing from Taiwan in November 1949 to lead the defense. But the same month Chongqing fell to the Communists, followed by Chengdu on 10 December. The Guomindang general Wang Sheng wanted to stay behind with his troops to continue anticommunist guerilla war in Sichuan, but was recalled to Taiwan, many of his soldiers making their way there as well, via Burma.

On Monday, 12 May 2008 at 2:28:01 PM local time, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.9/8.0 hit just 79 km northwest of the provincial capital of Chengdu. As of 14 May, the official Xinhua news agency reported: 14,463 people were dead, another 14,051 were missing, 25,788 were buried in the debris and 64,746 had been injured, On 31 May, the death toll was updated to 68,467 in Sichuan with a further ~17,000 people missing, and 354,045 injured.

History of Provincial Borders: Sichuan's borders have remained relatively constant for the past 500 years. However, the western Xikang province of the Republic of China was annexed to Sichuan in 1955. Since 1955 until 1997 it had been China's most populous province, hitting 100 million shortly after the 1982 Census figure of 99,730,000. This changed in 1997 when the city of Chongqing as well as the surrounding counties of Fuling and Wanxian were split off into the new Chongqing Municipality. The new municipality was formed to spearhead China's effort to develop its western provinces, as well as to coordinate the resettlement of residents from the reservoir areas of the Three Gorges Dam project. In 1997 when Sichuan split, the sum of the two parts was recorded to be 114,720,000 people , the only province ever to have reached 100 million people in China. Furthermore, as a subnational entity, it has only been exceeded by the former Russian SFSR of the Soviet Union and Uttar Pradesh of India.

 

Ancient Sichuan and the Unification of China by Steven F. Sage

 

 

 

 

 

Sanxingdui

Sanxingdui bronze heads with gold foil masks

Sanxingdui (三星堆; literally "three stars mound") is the name of an archaeological site in China, now believed to be the site of an ancient Chinese city. The previously unknown Bronze Age culture was re-discovered in 1987 when archaeologists excavated remarkable artifacts, that radiocarbon dating dated as being from the 12th-11th centuries BC. Leaving behind nothing in the historical record, not even in myth, the unknown culture that produced these artifacts is now known as the Sanxingdui Culture. A museum housing the artifacts is located near the city of Guanghan.

The Sanxingdui archaeological site is located about 40 kilometers northeast of Chengdu in Sichuan Province, 10 kilometers east of the city of Guanghan, but 50km from the city of treasures

Discovery: In 1929, a farmer unearthed a large stash of jade relics while digging a well, many of which found their way through the years into the hands of private collectors. Generations of Chinese archaeologists searched the area without success until 1986, when workers accidentally found sacrificial pits containing thousands of gold, bronze, jade, and pottery artifacts that had been broken (perhaps ritually disfigured), burned, and carefully buried. Researchers were astonished to find an artistic style that was completely unknown in the history of Chinese art, whose baseline had been the history and artefacts of the Yellow River civilization(s).

Ancient Bronze Casting: This ancient culture had remarkably advanced bronze casting technology which was acquired by adding lead to the usual combination of copper and tin creating a stronger substance that could create substantially larger and heavier objects; for instance, the world's oldest life-size standing human statue (260 cm. high, 180 kilograms), and a bronze tree with birds, flowers, and ornaments (396 cm.), which some have identified as renderings of the fusang tree of Chinese mythology.

The most striking finds were dozens of large bronze masks and heads (at least six with gold foil masks originally attached) represented with angular human features, exaggerated almond-shaped eyes, some with protruding pupils, and large upper ears. Many Sanxingdui bronze faces had traces of paint smears: black on the disproportionately large eyes and eyebrows, and vermillion on the lips, nostrils, and ear holes. Xu (2001:66) interprets this vermillion "not be coloring but something ritually offered for the head to taste, smell, and hear (or something that gave it the power to breathe, hear, and speak)." Based upon the design of these heads, archeologists believe they were mounted on wooden supports or totems, perhaps dressed in clothing. Liu (2000:37) concludes "masked ritual played a vital role in community life of the ancient Sanxingdui inhabitants", and characterizes these bronze ritual masks as something that may have worn by a shi 尸 (lit. "corpse") "personator, impersonator; ceremonial representative of a dead relative" (compare Paper 1995:82).

The shi was generally a close, young relative who wore a costume (possibly including a mask) reproducing the features of the dead person. The shi was an impersonator, that is, a person serving as a reminder of the ancestor to whom sacrifice was being offered. During such a ceremony, the impersonator was much more than an actor in a drama. Although the exact meaning may have been different, the group of Sanxingdui masked figures in bronze all have the character of an impersonator. It is likely the masks were used to impersonate and identify with certain supernatural beings in order to effect some communal good. (2000:37)

Another scholar (Carr 2007:401) compares these "bulging-eyed, big-eared bronze heads and masks" with "eye-idols" (effigies with large eyes and open mouths designed to induce hallucinations) in Julian Jaynes's bicameral hypothesis; and (2007:403) proposes, "It is possible that southern Chinese personators wore these hypnotic bronze masks, recursively representing the spirit of a dead ancestor with a mask that represents a face disguised by a mask."

Other bronze artifacts include birds with eagle-like bills, tigers, a large snake, zoomorphic masks, bells, and what appears to be a bronze spoked wheel but is more likely to be decoration from an ancient shield. Apart from bronze, Sanxingdui finds included jade artifacts consistent with earlier Chinese neolithic cultures, such as cong and zhang.

Possible Influence: The Sanxingdui Culture was a mysterious civilization in southern China, which was in the kingdom of Shu during the period of the Shang Dynasty. Although they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang, their culture was never recorded by Chinese historians. Sanxingdui culture is thought to be divided into several phases. The first one may have been independent, while the later phases merged with Ba, Chu, and other cultures.

Besides Sanxingdui, other archeological discoveries in Sichuan, including the Baodun (寶墩文化) and Jinsha (金沙遺址) cultures, all indicate that civilizations in southern China go back at least 5,000 years. Such evidence of independent cultures in different regions of China defies the traditional theory that the Yellow River was the sole "cradle of Chinese civilization."

 

 

Shu State

Shu State (lower left) during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods

Shu (古蜀) was an ancient state in what is now Sichuan, China. Shu derived its power from the Chengdu Plain, with its territory primarily in the central and western Sichuan basin, as well as in the upper Han River valley. Shu was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. Its capital was at Chengdu.

History: Shu is first mentioned in history as an alliance member with Zhou in overthrowing the Shang Dynasty, taking part in the Battle of Muye. In the archaeological record, post-Muye Shu showed a culture with advanced military technology equivalent to that of the Zhou states; however, Shu military technology stagnated for the next several centuries, mirrored by its lack of mention in recorded history.

Legend states that Shu was ruled at one time by the mythical king, Duyu (杜宇), and his descendants. Shu was later ruled by the Kaiming (開明) kings. During the later half of the Spring and Autumn Period, Shu culture increasingly borrowed from Chu and Ba cultures; for example, Shu copied the practice of boat coffin burials from Ba. The archaeological evidence also shows that Shu interacted with the cultures to the south in Yunnan and Guizhou.

During the Warring States Period, Qin and Chu increasingly encroached on the Han river valley. Clashes with Shu inevitably began to arise; Shu fought Qin in 387 BC and Chu in 377 BC.

Conquest by Qin: Archaeological evidence shows that several gallery roads from Qin to Shu were built during the Warring States Period over extremely difficult terrain, the Qinling Mountains and the Daba Mountains. Although legend attributes the building of the first gallery road, the Stone Cattle Road (石牛道), to the last Kaiming king (being tricked by Qin), the roads were probably built by Qin to prepare for its invasion of the Sichuan basin.

Qin took advantage of a dispute between the last Kaiming king and his brother, the Marquis of Zu, to invade Shu. The Marquis of Zu had allied with Ba in attacking Shu. In response, the Kaiming king invaded Zu and sent the Marquis of Zu into exile in Qin. The Marquis of Zu then appealed to King Huiwen of Qin to invade Shu.

At this critical juncture, King Huiwen's two primary advisors, Zhang Yi and Sima Cuo, held opposing views on invading Shu. Zhang Yi believed that Qin was close to winning control over the Central Plain, arguing instead for an attack on Qin's traditional nemesis, Han. On the other hand, Sima Cuo argued that invading Shu would greatly increase the agricultural wealth of Qin, tipping the balance of power in Qin's favor. King Huiwen agreed with Sima Cuo and sent his two advisors to lead the invasion of Shu. Qin defeated Shu and killed the last Kaiming king.

Shu Under Qin Rule: Qin turned Shu into a commandery and applied a strict process for integrating Shu into Qin. Qin sent officials to rule directly in Shu and actively encouraged migration of people from Qin into Shu. Although Qin tried to placate the populace by retaining the Kaiming rulers as the Marquis of Shu, Shu would rebel many times against Qin; in turn, Qin would respond by reinvading or suppressing Shu.

When King Huiwen died in 311 BC, a Qin official in Shu, Chen Zhuang, led a rebellion against Qin. Sima Cuo, Zhang Yi and Gan Mao led Qin forces into Shu and suppressed the rebellion. In 301 BC, Marquis Hui of Shu, a Kaiming descendant, rebelled. Sima Cuo led Qin forces into Shu and suppressed the rebellion. Marquis Hui's replacement, Marquis Wan, also rebelled against Qin. This time, the Qin governor in Shu, Zhang Ruo, suppressed the rebellion. After the last rebellion, the Kaiming descendants were permanently removed from actual power.

After securing its control over Shu, Qin used Shu as a place of exile, a practice later followed by the Han Dynasty.

 

 

Ba State

Ba State (lower left) during the Warring States Periods

Ba (巴國) was an ancient state in eastern Sichuan, China. Its original capital was Yicheng (Enshi City), Hubei. Ba was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. The modern ethnic minority Tujia people trace their origins back to the Ba people.

Ba, often described as a loose confederation or a collection of chiefdoms, consisted of several loosely-affiliated independent clans who recognised a king. The Ba clans were highly diverse, being composed of multiple ethnicities. Archaeological evidence shows that the Ba people relied primarily on fishing and hunting, with low levels of agriculture (no evidence of irrigation).

Ba may have aided the founders of the Zhou Dynasty in its overthrow of the Shang Dynasty at the Battle of Muye; however, Ba's first definitive appearance in recorded history occurred in 703 BC; the Zuo Zhuan recorded that Ba took part in a joint military operation with Chu against Deng.

Ba territory originally included areas in the Han River valley; the ascendance of Chu pushed Ba westwards and further into the Sichuan basin. Chu expansion forced Ba to move its capital several times. According to Chang Qu, capitals or administrative centers of Ba included Jiangzhou (Chongqing), Dianjiang (Hechuan), and Pingdu (Fengdu), with its final capital at Langzhong (閬中). During the Warring States Period, Qin, Chu and Shu, all more powerful states, shared a common border with Ba.

Although Chu sometimes encroached on Ba territory, Ba shared a complex relationship with Chu, with strong trade and marriage ties. Chu also employed many Ba mercenaries as soldiers in its own army. This practice sometimes caused problems for Chu; in one instance, Ba mercenaries employed by Chu rebelled and besieged the Chu capital in 676 or 675 BCE.

Ba and Zu allied with Qin in Qin's invasion of Shu. After the successful invasion, Qin immediately conquered its two allies and captured the last Ba king. Ba was then converted into a Qin commandery. Unlike its management of Shu, Qin allowed the Ba elite to retain direct rule and did not force large -scale migrations of Qin people into Ba territory. The Ba elite would later be marginalized through a policy of divide and rule.

Ba Culture: The tiger was an important part of Ba mythology, with the white tiger being held in highest esteem. Artifacts from Ba archaeological sites often employ tiger motifs. Other distinctive features of Ba culture include its distinctive curved blades, boat-shaped coffin burials and Ba-style bronze drums (chunyu 錞于), which were used to communicate in battle.

Warfare played an important role in Ba society. The Ba people were famous for their war songs and dances. Their warriors were often employed as mercenaries by other states, and weapons were prevalent in Ba grave goods.

Ba and Shu developed their own writing systems, found on bronzeware. There are three scripts. One pictographic script was unique to Ba, and two (possibly phonetic) scripts were found at Ba and Shu sites. All three scripts remain undecipherable today.

 

 

Kingdom of Nanzho

Nanzhao, alternate spellings Nanchao and Nan Chao (南詔) was a polity that flourished in what is now southern China and Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries. It was centered around present-day Yunnan in China.

Founding and Ethnography: Originally, there were several tribes that settled on the fertile land around Erhai lake. These tribes were called Mengshe (蒙舍), Mengsui (蒙嶲), Langqiong (浪穹), Dengtan (邆賧), Shilang (施浪), and Yuexi (越析). Each tribe had its own kingdom, known as a zhao. In 649 AD the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo (細奴邏), founded a kingdom (Damengguo 大蒙國) in the area of Lake Erhai. In the year AD 737, with the support of the Tang Dynasty of China, Piluoge united the six zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao, (i.e., 'Southern Zhao').

Nanzhao was made up of many ethnic and linguistic groups. Some historians believe that the majority of the population were of the Bai people, but that the elite spoke a variant of Yi, a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese. In any case, the capital was established in 738 at Taihe (modern day Taihe village, a few miles south of Dali). Located in the heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against attack, and it was in the midst of rich farmland.

From 680 AD it came under Tibetan control. The Tibetans recognised their suzerainty after 703 and then took it under their control again from 750-794, when Nanzhao turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped China defeat their armies.

Expansion: In 750, Nanzhao rebelled against the Tang Dynasty. In retaliation, the Tang sent an army against Nanzhao in 751, but this army was soundly defeated at Xiaguan. (It was in the same year that the Tang suffered another serious defeat at the hands of the Arabs at the Battle of Talas in Central Asia; these defeats weakened the dynasty both internally and externally.) Today the General's Cave (two km west of Xiaguan), and the Tomb of Ten Thousand Soldiers (in Tianbao Park) bear witness to this great massacre. In 754 another army was sent, this time from the north, but it too was defeated. Bolstered by these successes, Nanzhao expanded rapidly, first into Burma, then into the rest of Yunnan, down into northern Laos and Thailand, and finally, north into Sichuan. In 829, Chengdu was taken; it was a great prize, as it enabled Nanzhao to lay claim to the whole of Sichuan province, with its rich paddy fields. This was too much for the Tang Dynasty, who lost no time in counterattacking.

Decline: By 873, Nanzhao had been expelled from Sichuan, and retreated back to Yunnan. Taking Chengdu marked the high point of the Nanzhao kingdom, and it was a watershed: from then on, the Nanzhao Kingdom slowly declined.

Overthrow: In 902, the Nanzhao dynasty was overthrown, and it was followed by three other dynasties in quick succession, until Duan Siping seized power in 937 to establish the Kingdom of Dali.

 

 

Chengdu

Chengdu (成都), located in southwest People's Republic of China, is the capital of Sichuan province. Chengdu is also one of the most important economic centers, transportation and communication hubs in Western China. According to the 2007 Public Appraisal for Best Chinese Cities for Investment, Chengdu was chosen as one of the top ten cities to invest in out of a total of 280 urban centers in China.

More than four thousand years ago, the prehistorical Bronze Age culture of Jinsha (金沙) established itself in this region. The fertile Chengdu Plain, on which Chengdu is located, is called Tianfuzhi guo (天府之国) in Chinese, which literally means "the country of heaven", or more often seen translated as "the Land of Abundance". It was recently named China's 4th-most livable city by China Daily.

History of Chengdu: In the early 4th century BC, the 9th Kaiming king of the ancient Shu moved his capital to the city's current location from today's nearby Pixian. He was said to have been inspired by the ancient story of King Tai of Zhou, Grandfather of King Wu of Zhou, moving his capital. History recorded King Tai of Zhou's move as "it took a year to become a town; it took three years to become a capital". Following this, the king of Shu named the new city as "Cheng Du", which means "become a capital" (In Chinese, the word "cheng" means "become", "du" means "capital"). There are, however, several versions of why the capital was moved to Chengdu, and more recent theories of the name's origin point to it as stemming from, or referring to, earlier non-Han inhabitants and/or their languages.

After the conquest of Shu by the State of Qin in 316 BC, a new city was founded by the Qin general Zhang Yi (who as a matter of fact had argued against the invasion). This can be seen as the beginning of the Chinese Chengdu. It was renamed Yìzhou (益州) during the Han Dynasty.

During the partition following the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty, i.e. the era of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei founded the southwest kingdom of Shu-Han (蜀汉; 221-263) with Chengdu as its capital.

During the Tang Dynasty, both the "Poet God" Li Bаí (李白) and the "Poet Sage" Dù Fǔ (杜甫) spent some part of their lives in Chengdu. Du Fu constructed the celebrated "Caotáng" (thatched cottage or grass-hut) in the second year of his four-years stay (759-762). But today's Caotang, a rather sumptuous house in the traditional style, was only constructed in 1078 in memory of Du Fu. As early as the Tang dynasty more than 1,200 years ago, Chengdu became one of the foremost commercial cities in China, second to only Yangzhou.

Chengdu was also the birthplace of the first widely used paper money in the world (Northern Song Dynasty, around A.D. 960). The Qingyang Gong Taoist temple was built in Chengdu in the ninth century, meaning "Green Goat".

Two rebel leaders, one around the end of Song Dynasty, the other near the end of Ming Dynasty, set up the capitals of their short-lived kingdoms here, called Dàshu (大蜀) and Dàxi (大西), respectively.

During the Second World War the Kuomintang (KMT, Chinese Nationalist Party) government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek fled to Sichuan Province to escape the invading Japanese forces. They brought with them businesspeople, workers and academics, who founded many of the industries and cultural institutions which continue to make Chengdu an important center.

In 1944 the American XX Bomber Command launched Operation Matterhorn, an ambitious plan to base B-29 Superfortresses at Chengdu and strategically bomb the Japanese Home Islands. Because the operation required a massive airlift of fuel and supplies over the Himalayas, it was not a significant military success, but it did earn Chengdu the distinction of launching the first serious retaliation against the Japanese homeland.

During the Chinese Civil War, Chengdu was the last city on the Chinese mainland to be held by the Kuomintang-controlled government. R.O.C. President Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defence of the city at Chengdu Central Military Academy until 1949, when the city fell into Communist hands. The People's Liberation Army took the city on December 10 and the remnants of the Nationalist Chinese government fled to Taiwan.

On May 12, 2008, a 8.0 magnitude earthquake struck causing damage to the area, killing about 80,000 people and injuring 26,413 in the area as of May 12, 2008. 4,021 of the casualties and most of the property damage were from Dujiangyan and Pengzhou, two cities within the administration of Chengdu, the sub-provincial city. While 75 kilometers (48 miles) from the epicenter, Chengdu did not suffer any discernible damage.

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Yangtze River

The Yangtze River, or Chang Jiang (長江), is the longest river in China and Asia, and the third-longest in the world, after the Nile in Africa and the Amazon in South America.

The river is about 6,380 km long and flows from its source in Qinghai Province, eastwards into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It has traditionally been considered a dividing line between North and South China, although geographers consider the Qinling-Huai River line to be the official line of geographical division. As the largest river in the region, the Yangtze is historically, culturally, and economically important to China. One of the dams on the river, the Three Gorges Dam, is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world.

History: The Yangtze Harbor is important to the cultural origins of southern China. Human activity was found in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27 thousand years ago, initiating debate over the origin of the Chinese people. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Ba and Shu were located along the western part of the river, covering modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and western Hubei; Chu was located along the central part of river, corresponding to Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, and southern Anhui. Wu and Yue were located along the eastern part of the river, now Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. Although the Yellow River region was richer and more developed at that time, the milder climate and more peaceful environment made the Yangtze River area more suitable for agriculture.

From the Han Dynasty, the region of the Yangtze River became more and more important in China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu, the northern part of Zhejiang, and the southeastern part of Anhui) provided 1/3-1/2 of the nation's revenues.

Historically, the Yangtze became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period.

Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and smaller countries in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing, though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911-1912, 1927-1937, and 1945-1949.

 

 

Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

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The Silk Road

 

The Silk Road, or Silk Route, is a series of trade and cultural transmission routes that were central to cultural interaction through regions of the Asian continent connecting East and West by linking traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers, nomads and urban dwellers from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods of time. The trade route was initiated around 114 BC by the Han Dynasty (114 BC), although earlier trade across the continents had already existed. Geographically, The Silk Road or Silk Route is an interconnected series of ancient trade routes connecting Chang'an (today's Xi'an) in China, with Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, extending over 8,000 km (5,000 miles) on land and sea. Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world.

As it extends westwards from the commercial centers of North China, the continental Silk Road divides into north and south routes to avoid the Tibetan Plateau.

The Southern Route: Mainly a single route running through northern India, then the Turkestan–Khorasan region into Mesopotamia and Anatolia; having southward spurs enabling the journey to be completed by sea from various points. It runs south through the Sichuan Basin in China and crosses the high mountains into northeast India, probably via the Ancient tea route. It then travels west along the Brahmaputra and Ganges river plains, possibly joining the Grand Trunk Road west of Varanasi. It runs through northern Pakistan and over the Hindu Kush mountains to rejoin the northern route briefly near Merv

It then follows a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant. From there, Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy, and land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa.

The Ancient Tea Route (茶马古道) was a network of mule caravan paths winding through the mountains of Yunnan Province in Southwest China. It is also referred to as the Southern Silk Road. From around a thousand years ago, the Ancient Tea Route was a trade link from Yunnan, one of the first tea-producing regions: to India via Burma; to Tibet; and to central China via Sichuan Province. In addition to tea, the mule caravans carried salt. It is believed that it was through this trading network that tea (typically tea bricks) spread across China and Asia from its origins in Pu'er county, near Simao Prefecture in Yunnan.

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秦漢

秦漢（1946年7月10日－），本名孫祥鐘，台灣著名男演員。四川成都人，出生於上海，後來搬到香港，又轉去台灣。曾經唸過士林中學、開平高中。父親是國軍高級將領、抗日名將孫元良。母親是廣東人。

高中時期，秦漢曾報名中影訓練班，後（18歲）又加入「國聯」成為基本演員，藝名「康凱」（這個藝名是由李翰祥導演所取的，也是秦漢的第一個藝名），並拍了第一部電影《遠山含笑》，之後他去了服兵役，經歷了三年的海軍陸戰隊生涯。退役後返回台北，為了謀生自立，他學了一段時期的繪畫，主要是抽象畫和山水畫，並把作品拿到母親開設的畫廊中賣，銷量不錯。後來一個偶然機會，他應邀演出了第一部電視劇《七色橋》。但直到1972年演出宋存壽導演的電影《母親三十歲》、《窗外》後才漸為人知。同年，他拍攝《唐山五兄弟》時將藝名改為「孫戈」，後來姚鳳磐再為他取新的藝名「秦漢」。

秦漢曾演出多齣瓊瑤的作品，其中包括電影以及電視劇。在三廳電影時代，與秦祥林、林青霞和林鳳嬌合稱「二秦二林」。

1972年，秦漢於拍電影《窗外》時初次邂逅剛出道的林青霞，二人除在戲裡當戀人，戲外林青霞也愛上秦漢，但當時秦漢已結婚（1971年與邵喬茵結婚），並育有育有一兒一女（孫詩雯及孫國豪）。1977年，二人合演電影《我是一片雲》，接著此劇另一男主角秦祥林也加入這段戀情，（秦祥林）並一度與林青霞訂婚，不過林青霞後來還是重返秦漢懷抱。

1979年，演藝事業如日中天的林青霞，選擇離開台灣遠赴美國逃避這段戀情，秦祥林也接著追到美國，便傳出林青霞和秦祥林訂婚的消息。婚約維持了4年後，但最後也解除了，於此同時秦漢也與妻子邵喬茵離婚。秦漢得知林青霞恢復單身後，二人終於在1985年時正式交往，但好景不長，1993年兩人在聚少離多的情形下再度分手。1994年，林青霞在美國和邢李㷧結婚。

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Chiung Yao

Chiung Yao or Qiong Yao (瓊瑤) (born 陳喆 April 20, 1938 in Sichuan, China) is a popular Taiwanese romance novelist. Many of her works have been made and remade into movies and TV series. During 1990s, her novels and TV series adapted from her works were a hit in Taiwan and Mainland China. It also gain popularity in Southeast Asia such as Indonesia. Among her many novels, Huan Zhu Ge Ge, or "Princess Returning Pearl" in English, is by far the best-known and popular.

Both her father (陳致平) and mother (袁曉園) received a good education. She was born in the capital city Chengzhong of Sichuan province. In 1949, along with her family, she moved to Taiwan, where she attended 台北师范附小 and Taipei Municipal Zhong Shan Girls High School (臺北市立中山女子高級中學). At the age of 16, she published her first novel. During high school she had published over 200 articles. After graduation from high school and failure to enter college, she got married and became a housewife, and at the same time started her writing career. Her first novel, still often read today, is Chuangwai ("Outside the Window").

Chiung Yao's romance novels were very well received in Taiwan when they were first published. Her novels feature women who would go through years of intense psychological suffering for the sake of love, with male leads who are often weaker than the female protagonists. Oftentimes the novels are set in the early Republican era, when family dictums were feudalistic and chauvinistic. Princess Pearl is the first of her many novels which ended happily for her female protagonists.

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Hou Dejian

Hou Dejian (侯德健), born October 1, 1956 in Taiwan, is a songwriter, composer, and singer. Since the 1980s, his songs have been popular in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. His songs are written mostly in Chinese, with a few in English. The lyrics often reflect traditional Chinese thought, combined with a contemporary mentality.

In 1978, Hou Dejian wrote a song entitled 《龍的傳人》(Descendants of the Dragon), with which he gained significant popularity. He left Taiwan for mainland China in 1983, despite the ban from the Taiwanese government. He then witnessed and became a part of the hunger strike with three others in the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 pro-democracy movement in Beijing. He returned to Taiwan after being deported by the mainland government in 1990. He later migrated to New Zealand, and there he worked on writing books and screenplays.

 

侯德健（祖籍四川; 1956年10月1日－），台灣知名作曲家，亦為六四事件風雲人物，現為《易經》研究者，出版自己的一些研究成果。

簡介: 1970年代，校園民歌在台灣風行，他寫了《捉泥鰍》、《歸去來兮》等作品，1983年寫下《酒矸倘賣無》流行一時的電影《搭錯車》主題歌。他的代表作《龍的傳人》（1978年）甚至變成中華民族的別稱。

1983年，為尋找音樂創作的源泉，侯德健無視國民黨政府的禁令，隻身前往大陸。隨著《龍的傳人》在大陸流行，他很快成為家喻戶曉的歌手，並且推出《新鞋子舊鞋子》（1984年）和《三十歲以後才明白》（1988年）等專輯。

1989年5月，他在天安門廣場為聲援民主運動與另外三人發起絕食（另三人為劉曉波、高新、周舵，合稱「四君子」）並於6月2日發起〈六二絕食宣言〉聲言絕食72小時（6月2日16時 —6月5日16時）。六四後接受訪問時說過：

很多人說廣場上曾經有兩千人被打死或者是幾百人被打死，在廣場上有坦克輾壓學生、撒退的人群等等，那麼我必須強調這些事情我沒有看見，那麼我不知道別人在哪裡看見，我是六點半還在廣場上，我一點都沒有看見，我一直在想，說：我們是不是需要用謊言去打擊那些說謊的敵人？難道事實還不夠有力嗎？那麼，如果我們真的需要用謊言去打擊說謊的敵人，那隻不過是滿足了我們一時泄恨、發泄的需要而矣，那麼，這個事情是很危險的事情，因為也許你的謊言會先被揭穿，那麼之後的話你再也沒有力氣去打擊你的敵人了。

六四後，於1990年被大陸驅逐出境，由福州經公海轉漁船回返台灣；他在蘇澳上岸後向中華民國政府自首，結果以「非法入境」的罪名（而非叛國罪）被判刑三個月，得易科罰金，所以沒有坐牢。回台後，將自己在大陸的創作結集出書《禍頭子正傳》，另外還出一張同名的歌曲專輯。

1992年，據傳在杭州湖心亭得異人傳授《易經》。移民紐西蘭後，他開始《易經》研究。1994年出版《2001大終結》，指出1995年兩岸不會出現大問題，但之後就會越來越緊張；到了2001年，分立在海峽兩岸的兩面旗幟（國民黨和共產黨）會有一面倒下（坊間意會為國民黨在2000年中華民國總統選舉與2001年立法委員選舉中的挫敗，成為在野黨）。該書也提到台灣在1999年會發生無可避免的天災（坊間意會為「九二一大地震」）。

同時，他成立的春秋影業公司，並與華納兄弟及台灣技術最好的動畫製作公司合作，2006年初起開始集6600萬美元鉅資製作電腦動畫片《白蛇傳》，成功的話將為台灣動畫史上成本最高的作品，由他親任製片、編劇和創意總監；影片預計在2008年北京奧運舉行時，全球上映。

龍的傳人: 作於1978年12月16日，此為侯之成名作；當時由於美國與中華民國斷交，轉與中華人民共和國建交。消息傳來後侯奮筆填此歌詞，後首先經台灣名歌手李建復演唱，及當時台灣報紙在官方授意下一再宣傳，最終傳遍所有華人社區成為言簡意賅的愛國歌曲。往後在香港張明敏的演譯較普遍，2000年後還有王力宏的版本。

1989年5月27日的《民主歌聲獻中華》上，侯把此曲作了兩處修改：

離開台灣的非議: 1983年，侯德健離開了台灣，為了尋找音樂創作的靈感，而奔赴中國大陸。這無疑是給戒嚴體制下的國民黨政權難堪。侯德健的成名作《龍的傳人》，在當時中港台三地均火熱非常，形成流行樂界的國歌，甚至成為中影公司的電影配樂。而隨著侯德健「叛逃」，《龍的傳人》也被打入冷宮，被政府列入禁歌名單。關於侯德健出走大陸，這是大眾普遍所認知的情況，然而也有人抱持不一樣的看法。

1983年侯德健出走中國大陸，9月其友羅大佑發行專輯《未來的主人翁》。其中一首歌〈現象七十二變〉有句歌詞為：「有人在黑夜之中槍殺歌手」。當時一般認為這句歌詞是向被槍殺的John Lennon致哀，或可能是揭露當時黑道恐嚇歌手如高凌風等。楊祖珺亦在侯德健出走當月，於其所創辦的《前進周刊》上，發表了〈不要槍殺歌手〉與〈官員官員你擦亮眼〉兩篇文章，另有一篇未註明日期的〈巨龍巨龍你瞎了眼〉，同是對當時歌曲審查制度，及政府過度干涉音樂創作，做出強力的抨擊。文章中，楊祖珺認為侯德健並非因《龍的傳人續篇》銷路不佳、為求創作靈感而離開台灣，而是不滿歌曲審查制度，與過度干預文藝創作的政府，才出走大陸。因此，在時過境遷的二十一世紀，有人把羅大佑「在黑夜之中槍殺歌手」，看作是對當權者的批判。羅大佑於1982年發行專輯《之乎者也》時，曾自解其標題，乃是「歌曲審查之，通不通過乎；歌曲通過者，翻版盜印也」，明顯可見一個音樂創作者的無奈--歌曲上市前，有能否通過審查的壓力；上市後又要面對猖獗一時的盜版挑戰。從楊祖珺在當時發表所發表的文章裡，也可以看見當時歌曲審查制度與政府在背後操弄的影子。政府散播出來，侯德健「叛逃」的形象，在解嚴後被後人重新解讀。由侯德健好友--羅大佑與楊祖珺--的文章與作品中，歌曲審查制度的蠻橫顯露無遺，而這是不是侯德健離開台灣的真正主因，恐怕只有當事人最清楚了。

 

Songs

• 侯德健 - 龍的傳人
• 李建復- 龍的傳人
• 張明敏 龍的傳人
• 王力宏 - 龍的傳人
• 新鞋子舊鞋子
• 歸去來兮
• 我们要活下去
• 酒矸倘賣嘸

 

 

龍的傳人

遙遠的東方有一條江 它的名字就叫長江

遙遠的東方有一條河 它的名字就叫黃河

雖不曾看見長江美 夢裡常神遊長江水

雖不曾聽見黃河壯　　澎湃洶湧在夢裡

 

古老的東方有一條龍 它的名字就叫中國

遙遠的東方有一群人 他們全都是龍的傳人

巨龍腳底下我成長 成長以後是龍的傳人

黑眼睛黑頭髮黃皮膚 永永遠遠是龍的傳人

 

百年前寧靜的一個夜 巨變前夕的深夜裡

槍砲聲敲碎了寧靜的夜 四面楚歌是姑息的劍

多少砲聲仍隆隆 多少年又是多少年

巨龍巨龍巨你擦亮眼 永永遠遠永地擦亮眼

巨龍巨龍巨你擦亮眼 永永遠遠永地擦亮眼

 

 

* 【侯德健】最具人文關懷的悲劇性音樂人

Excerpts: 侯德健祖籍四川，1956年出生于臺灣，從小在身為國軍老兵父親的“咱們是四川人不是臺灣人”的教育中長大，他在《歸去來兮》中唱道：“歸去來兮，田園將蕪/歸去來兮，青春將蕪……”就表明了他對大陸思念的急迫。

侯德健在大陸流行音樂發展史中的地位是尷尬的。他定居大陸時提出三個條件，“不公開”、“不接觸官方”、“找到親屬”，事實上只有第三個條件完好地執行。1945年后臺與大陸一直互為敵對，侯德健的到來成為官方文章的極好素材，“不公開”是不可能的；在泛政治化的環境下，不接觸官方是不可能的。但這反映出他與大陸音樂界不同的文化觀念，書生氣十足。 ...

同樣如日中天的、同樣書生意氣的侯德健，因政治原因，在1990年之后寫的歌只好署上朋友的名字。1992年侯德健移民新西蘭，研究易經。1998返臺時，他已是以易學大師身份出現，與音樂沒什么聯系了。

包括曾被臺當局力推的《龍的傳人》等侯德健的歌曲，早在1982年就被臺灣禁止傳播，這些音樂僅存留在一些人的記憶之中。侯德健在兩地最終都以政治敏感人物的形象出現，這對一個大眾流行文化人物來說是致命的。于是，侯德健這個在大陸和臺灣都有杰出貢獻和重要地位的音樂人，最終告別了音樂；他的貢獻、地位，和他的音樂一起，也被海峽兩岸共同有意無意地遺忘了。

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