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Guangxi

 

Major Cities

Nanning, Beihai, Guilin, Liuzhou, Longmen, Sanjiang, Yangshuo.

 

Tourism

The major tourist attraction of Guangxi is Guilin, a town famed across China and the world for its spectacular setting by the Lijiang River (Li River) amongst severe karst peaks. It also used to be the capital of Guangxi, and Jingjiang Princes City, the old princes residence, is open to the public. South of Guilin down the river is the town of Yangshuo, which has become a favourite destination for foreign tourists, particularly backpackers.

Ethnic minorities native to Guangxi, such as the Zhuang and Dong, are also interesting for tourists. The northern part of the province, bordering with Guizhou, is home to the Longsheng rice terraces, said to be some of the steepest in the world.

 

Cuisine

The famous Guilin chili sauce (桂林辣椒酱) used widely in cooking by locals, is made of fresh chili, garlic, and fermented soybeans, and is considered one of the city's Three Treasures (桂林三宝). The other two are Guilin Sanhua Jiu (桂林三花酒), a variety of rice baijiu, or liquor distilled from rice; and Guilin pickled tofu (桂林豆腐乳).

Guilin rice noodles (桂林米粉) have been the local breakfast staple since the Qin dynasty and are renowned for their delicate taste. Legend has it that when Qin troops suffering from diarrhea entered this region, a cook created the Guilin rice noodles for the army because they had trouble eating the local food. Specifically, the local specialty is noodles with horse meat, but this dish can also be ordered without the horse meat. Zongzi (粽子), a dumpling made from glutinous rice and mung bean paste wrapped in a bamboo or banana leaf) is another popular delicacy in Guilin.

GUANGXI

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Guangxi (or Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; 廣西壯族自治區) is a Zhuang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China.

Its location in southern China, along its border with Vietnam, and mountainous terrain, has made it one of the border frontiers of Chinese civilization. Even into the 20th century it was considered an open, wild territory. The current name "Guang" itself means "expanse", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in 226 AD. It was given provincial level status during the Yuan Dynasty and in 1949 was reformed as one of China's five minority autonomous regions.

The abbreviation of the province is 桂 (Gui), which comes from Guilin, former capital, center of much of Guangxi's culture, politics, and history, and currently a major city in the autonomous region.

 

Geography

Located in the southern part of the country, Guangxi is bordered by Yunnan to the west, Guizhou to the north, Hunan to the northeast, and Guangdong to the southeast. It is also bounded by Vietnam in the southwest and the Gulf of Tonkin in the south.

Guangxi is a mountainous region. The Nanling Mountains are found in the northeast border, with the Yuecheng Mountains (越城岭) and Haiyang Mountains (海洋山) being its shorter branching ridges. Nearer to the center of the region are the Dayao Mountains (大瑶山) and the Daming Mountains (大明山). To the north there are the Duyao Mountains (都阳山) and the Fenghuang Mountains (凤凰山), while on the southeast border there are the Yunkai Mountains (云开大山). The highest point is Mount Mao'er (猫儿山) located in the Yuecheng Mountains, at 2141 m.

Many rivers cut valleys through the mountains. Most of these rivers form the tributary basin of the West River:

Guangxi has a short coastline on the Gulf of Tonkin. Important seaports include Beihai, Qinzhou and Fangchenggang.

Guangxi has a subtropical climate.

 

Economy

Important crops in Guangxi include rice, maize, sweet potatoes, and wheat. Cash crops include sugar cane, peanuts, tobacco, and kenaf.

Guangxi has more tin, manganese, and indium deposits than any other province of China.

In recent years Guangxi's economy has languished behind that of its wealthy neighbour and twin, the province of Guangdong.

 

Culture

"Guangxi" and neighbouring Guangdong literally mean "Guang West" and "Guang East". Together, Guangdong and Guangxi are called the "Two Guangs" (兩廣). Its culture and language are reflected in this. Though now associated with the Zhuang ethnic minority, Guangxi's culture traditionally has had a close connection with the Cantonese. Cantonese culture and language followed the Xi River (西江) valley from Guangdong and is still predominate in the eastern half of Guangxi today. Outside of this area there is a huge variety of ethnicities and language groups represented.

Guangxi is known for its ethno-linguistic diversity. In the capital of Nanning, for example, four dialect-languages are spoken locally: Southwestern Mandarin, Cantonese, Pinghua, and Zhuang.

 

Demographics

The region has a high concentration of Zhuang, over 14 million, one of the major minority ethnicities of China. Over 90% of Zhuang in China live in Guangxi, especially in the central and western regions. There is also a significant number of both Dong and Miao minority peoples. Other ethnic groups include: Yao, Hui, Yi (Lolo), Shui, and Gin (Vietnamese).

 

 

Macro Geographical Areas in Chinese History

Chinese history is often explain in terms of several strategic areas, definite by particular topographic limits. Starting from the Chinese central plain, the former heart of the Han populations, the Han people expanded militarily and then demographically toward the Loess plateau, the Sichuan plain, and the Southern hills, not without resistance from local populations. Pushed by its comparatively higher demographic growth, the Han continued their expansion by military and demographic waves. The far-south of nowadays China, the northern parts of today's Vietnam, the Tarim basin were first reached and durably subdued by Han dynasty's armies. The northern steppes (Mongolia, Siberia), and the Tibetan plateau were softly vassalized in Tang times, and strongly integrated under the Yuan dynasty. The Manchurian plain and Korean peninsula were usually not under Chinese contol, with the exception of some limited periods of occupation. The Manchurian plain became strongly integrated into the Chinese empire during the late Qing dynasty, while the West side of the Changbai mountains, formerly the home of Korean tribes, thus also entered China.

 

 

Lingnan

Lingnan (嶺南) is a geographic area referring to lands in the south of China's "Five Ranges" which are Tayu, Qitian, Dupang, Mengzhu, Yuecheng. The region covers the Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Jiangxi provinces of modern China and northern Vietnam.

The area was inhabited by the Hundred Yue tribes and the motherland of ancient Nanyue. At that time, Lingnan was considered as a barbarian land and it had loose contact with the Zhongyuan region, which was the cultural cradle of Chinese culture. In the 2nd century BC, the region was absorbed into the Middle Kingdom, and its development had been boosted since the Ancient Meiguan Road (梅關古道) was paved.

Lingnan culture (嶺南文化) refers to the culture of Guangdong and the nearby provinces in southeastern China. It is the subject of research at institutions such as the Center for Lingnan Culture. It is typically contrasted with Zhongyuan culture, that of China's northern plains (Zhongyuan).

Old-fashioned shops in Wan Chai are typical examples of Lingnan architecture, comparable to those found in Guangzhou and Taipei. Attached to the second storey from the pavement, numerous pillars were built in front of the stores.

Lingnan architecture is concentrated at Xiguan. Built at the end of the Qing Dynasty, Baomo Garden is located at Zini Village near Shawan town of Panyu and is a fine example of classical Lingnan architecture. Once inside, exotic buildings, gardens, hills, lakes and bridges are found - a place that reveals interplay between nature's art and man-made art in forms of sculptures and edifices, which boast intricate clay, porcelain, brick, wood and stone carving. Chen Clan Temple is another representative of Lingnan architecture. The Temple was built in the sixteenth year (1890) of Guangxu Emperor of the Qing Dynasty and served as an academy for Chen families in 72 counties of the Guangdong Province. It comprises all sorts of folk architectural and decorative arts, and is famous for its "Three Carvings" (stone, wood and brick carvings), "Three sculptures" (ceramic sculpture, clay sculpture and colorful sculpture) and "One cast" (cast iron). Therefore, it is called the best of all the clan temples in neighbourhood.

Today, some building elements of Lingnan architecture are adapted in constructions of commercial districts in Guangzhou. In streets like Beijinglu Commercial Street, Zhongshan Wulu Road and Hui Fulu Road, old-fashioned shops of Lingnan architecture are found in heaps. Attached to the second storey from the pavement, numerous pillars were built in front of the stores. Similar building styles are still common in some torn-down areas both in Hong Kong and Taipei.

 

Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt : Environment and economy in late imperial south China by Robert B. Marks, Donald Worster (Editor) , Alfred W. Crosby (Editor)

 

 

 

Emperor and Ancestor: State and lineage in south China by David Faure

 

 

 

南蠻不蠻——論珠江流域史前文化 by 張鎮洪

 

 

 

南蠻不蠻——論珠江流域史前文化: 珠江是嶺南地區一條最大的河流，它覆蓋了雲南、貴州、廣西、廣東四省區，其中一些支流的源頭可追溯到湖南、江西、福建境内，珠江文化就是指存在於珠江流域的各種文化。本書介紹的是珠江流域史前時期的文化。　　嶺南地區一直都被視爲蠻荒之地。所謂蠻荒意爲與中原地區相比，嶺南地區生産落後，經濟不發達，民風粗野，不够開化等等。其實不然，大量的考古發現表明，早在史前時期，嶺南地區已經存在豐富的文化，在人類起源、農業和家畜飼養起源、原始宗教和藝術的起源等方面都有過輝煌的成就。數十年來，考古資料日益豐富，并且今後還會不斷有更新、更重要的發現。雖然目前還不能説珠江流域史前文化的面貌、珠江流域的史前史已經完全清楚，但我們基本可以斷言：嶺南地區不是蠻荒之地——南蠻不蠻。正因爲史前時期有過燦爛輝煌的文化，珠江流域在各個歷史時期，特别是近、現代歷史上，在中華民族文化的發展中都起着先鋒作用，這正是文化沉澱深厚的表現

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Zhuang

The Zhuang (壯族) are an ethnic group of people who mostly live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in southern China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. Their population, estimated at 18 million people, puts them second only to the Han Chinese and makes the Zhuang the largest minority in China. The name of the Zhuang minority used to be written 獞. However, the character also refers to a variety of wild dogs, so it was considered an ethnic slur. In 1949, the "animal" radical was replaced by the "human" radical, and the character became 僮. Eventually, the character was replaced with 壮, a character already in existence meaning "sturdy" or "strong".

The Zhuang live mostly in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in southern China. Some also live in the Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou and Hunan provinces.

The Zhuang language (壯語) is used by the Zhuang people in the People's Republic of China. Most speakers live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Zhuang, which belongs to the Tai language group, is an official language in that region. Standardized Zhuang is based on the dialect of Wuming County (武鸣县). Buyei, considered a separate language in China, is actually just a slightly different standard form of Zhuang, used across the province border in Guizhou. There is a dialect continuum between Zhuang and Buyei. Zhuang is a tonal language. It has six tones.

The Tai languages are a subgroup of the Tai-Kadai language family. The Tai languages include the most widely spoken of the Tai-Kadai languages, including Thai, the national language of Thailand, Lao or Laotian, the national language of Laos, Myanmar's Shan language, and Zhuang, a major language of southern China.

Prehistory: The Zhuang are of Tai origin, a people who migrated south from central China roughly 5000 years ago. The Zhuang settled in what is now Guangxi while other Tai peoples moved to Yunnan. It is suggested the Tai peoples migrated for food purposes, as the culture developed a unique irrigation system which was useful for growing rice. As the soil was unsuitable for this purpose in Central China, the Tai sought out more fertile plains. However, it is highly probable that struggles with emerging Chinese states that rapidly gained power with Mesolithic (Bronze Age) weapons had something to do with this. Long struggles with China to avoid destruction (as they were "barbarians") led Tais around 1100 AD to migrate south from Southern China to create the Lao, Thai and Shan peoples of Indochina, and even as far away as Assam, India.

The Dynasties: The Zhuang did not record their history until the Eastern Zhou dynasty (475-221 BC) of China. The Chinese referred to the area as Bai-Yue 百越/百粵 (the Hundred Yue - referring to the aborigines of southern China). Eastern Guangxi was conquered by the Han people under the Qin Dynasty in 214 BC. The Hans, to bring the area firmly in their control, built the Ling Canal to link the Xiang and Lijiang rivers and form a North-South waterway.

An independent state known as Nan Yue (Southern Yue, or Vietnam) around Canton was created by General Zhao Tuo when the Qin Dynasty collapsed. This Kingdom was supported by the Zhuang until its collapse in 111 BC. The Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD) thought the Zhuang culture unproductive, so they reduced local authority and consolidated their authority with Military posts at Guilin, Wuzhou, and Yulin.

In 42 AD, the Trung Sisters uprising was quelled by an army under General Ma Yuan, who sought not only victory on the battlefield but felt true concern for the Zhuang people. He reorganized the Zhuang Local Authority, improved public works, dug canals and reclaimed land to increase production. His work brought the Zhuang into a more modern condition, and temples in his honor can still be seen to this day.

An influx of immigrant Yao people from Hunan after the collapse of the Han Dynasty caused the region to become unstable as the Yao showed hostility to assimilation. The Guiping area of Guangxi, where the Yao settled, would become a hotbed of revolution against Han rule, causing the Zhuang people to suffer terribly, despite their passive stance on assimilation.

Under the Tang Dynasty Guangxi became part of Ling-nan Tao (large province) with present day Hainan and Guangdong. The noted scholar Liu Zongyuan was prefectural administrator at Liuzhou. Irked by Chinese expansion, however, the Zhuang moved to support the Tai kingdom of Nanchao in Yunnan. Guangxi was then divided into an area of Zhuang ascendancy west of Nanning and an area of Han ascendancy east of Nanning.

After the collapse of the Tang a new Chinese kingdom known as Nan Han (Southern Han), based in Guangdong, gained minimal control over the Zhuang, but the Nan Han Kingdom was plagued by instability and it was annexed by the Song Dynasty of China in 971. The Nan Han rule of the Zhuang was marked by minimal interference in Zhuang affairs by the Chinese rulers.

The Song developed a new way of dealing with the Zhuang that was a combination of force and appeasement, a policy that neither satisfied the aspirations of the Zhuang nor ended the savage warfare brought to the region by the Yao against the Chinese. In 1052 a Zhuang leader, Nong Zhigao, led a revolt and set up an independent kingdom in the Southwest. The revolt was crushed, and the Song rule became more brutal, causing the region to spasm in revolt against the Chinese.

After the Yuan Dynasty liquidated the Song, they spent several years deciding what to do with the Zhuang. Weary of the bad relationship previous Chinese rulers had with the region, they decided to make it a full province of China rather than let it remain an occupied territory. This only caused greater stress as the Zhuang and Yao felt alienated, and hated direct rule from the Chinese government. Further complicating Zhuang aspirations, another aboriginal people, the Miao, left Guizhou and Hunan for the Zhuang lands.

The area continued to be unruly, forcing the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) to impose an underhanded way of dealing with it: the Ming would give tribal leaders of the Zhuang an army to attack the Yao. Once the Yao were devastated, the Ming used the armies they had given the Zhuang leaders to kill the Zhuang leaders, and force a leaderless Zhuang society under their heavy handed rule. This resulted in perhaps the bloodiest period of history in a relatively calm region. At the Battle of Rattan Gorge, in 1465, 20,000 deaths were reported. The Ming policy failed, but the larger cities in the region did prosper under Ming economic reform.

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) let the region remain in chaos until 1726 when they imposed direct rule as the Yuan had. This was also a failed venture as a Yao revolution took place in 1831. Twenty years later, in 1850, the same area witnessed the Taiping Rebellion break out. The execution of a French missionary led to the Second Opium war in 1858. The Franco-Chinese War of 1885 put Vietnam under French supremacy and opened up the area to foreign encroachment. All of this caused a constant economic depression through the nineteenth century.

Modern Times: Together with neighboring Guangdong, Guangxi became an area of Sun Yat-sen (孫逸仙)'s Nationalist (國民黨) revolution. With the fall of the Qing, the Zhuang sent representatives to the central government to campaign for Guangxi autonomy, but when years of protocol failed, the "Guangxi Clique" turned to open revolt in 1927. Maintaining a defiant self-rule stance for two years, the Zhuang leaders of Li Tsung-jen and Li Chi-shen modernized Guangxi, but Chiang Kai-shek ruthlessly crushed their revolt in 1929. Despite the Clique's failure, Chiang could not put Guangxi under direct provincial rule, and it remained unruly until 1950. The Kuomintang's suppression of Guangxi led to widespread support of Communism.

During World War II Guangxi was a major target of Japanese attacks, as they invaded the coast in 1939. The famous patriotic newspaper National Salvation Daily was printed at Guilin. In 1944, the Japanese launched a major offensive to take the western half of Guangxi, but with relentless Zhuang guerrillas and a Chinese counterattack, the Japanese were routed.

* Sinification of the Zhuang People, Culture, and Their Language by Pingwen Huangn

 

 

Dong

The Dong (侗族) is a Han-Chinese exonym for the Kam People, who are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. The Dong or Kam People are internationally renowned for their polyphonic choir singing called Kgal Laox in their own language (侗族大歌), which can be literally translated as Kam Grand Choir in English. The Kam Grand Choir has been enlisted by the UNESCO as a world-class intangible cultural heritage since 2009. They are also famed for their natively bred rice cultivar Kam Sweet Rice (香禾糯), and for their carpentry skills and unique architecture, in particular a form of covered bridge known as the "wind and rain bridge" (风雨桥). Many of the people are farmers. Their cuisine prominently features pickled foods and sticky rice.

They live mostly in Guizhou, Hunan, and Guangxi provinces of China.

Language: The Dong language (own name: lix Gaeml) is a Kradai (and Zhuang-Dong) language. When written, the Dong people sometimes use Chinese characters to represent the sounds of Dong words. A new orthography based on the Latin alphabet was developed in 1958, but it is not used very much, due to a lack of printed material and trained teachers.

 

Miao

The Miao (苗族) are a linguistically and culturally related group of people recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China as one of the 55 official minority groups. Miao is a Chinese term and does not reflect the self-designations of the component sub-groups, which include (with some variant spellings) Hmong/Mong, Hmu, A Hmao,and Kho (Qho) Xiong. The Miao live primarily in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. Some members of the Miao sub-groups, most notably Hmong/Mong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand).

Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples often with the connotation of "barbarian." This former meaning has not kept members of the modern nationality from self-identifying as Miao.

Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classified them according to the most characteristic colour of the women's clothes. The list below contains the self-designations, the colour designations and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China:

• Ghao Xong; Red Miao; west Hunan.
• Hmu, Gha Ne (Ka Nao); Black Miao; southeast Guizhou.
• A Hmao; Big Flowery Miao; northwest Guizhou and northeast Yunnan.
• Hmong, White Miao, Mong, Green (Blue) Miao, Small Flowery Miao; south Sichuan, west Guizhou and south Yunnan.

According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of Miao sub-groups live in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar due to migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam wars between 1949 and 1975, many Hmong/Mong people now live in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia. Altogether there are approximately 8 million speakers of Miao languages. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong/Mong-Mien (Miao-Yao) language family.

Archaeological Discoveries: Many Miao scholars believe the Dawenkou Culture to be Miao. They cite the pottery designs found in the tombs as examples. The designs are very similar to present day Miao embroideries. Combine this with the presence of Miao in Shangdong suggests the Miao's origin is not the south but the mouth of the Yellow River. It would also support the Miao's claim to the Shang Dynasty since Shangdong is part of Shang.

Lady Dai found in Tomb no. 1 at Mawangdui is believed by many Miao as a Miao woman. They cite the T-shaped banners draped over her coffin as an example of Miao burial practices and beliefs. This dispel the belief that the sinicization of the Miao was by force or even sinicized during the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang is a general under Xiang Yu meaning he commanded Miao troops and they are his base of power. When the dispute with Xiang Yu broke out Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo and Fan Kuai saved Liu Bang's life. This meant Liu Bang's support among the Miao was strong. The Han-Chu contention was not about a struggle between two groups of people but between two individuals. This explains why Miao beliefs and culture flourished during the Western Han. It would also mean that the Han nationality began when the Miao and Huaxia came together as one. The present day Miao may be the remnant of those who fled when Qin conquered Chu. They left before peace came and never returned. It would explain why Chu is acknowledged by the Miao as a Miao Kingdom but not Han given Liu Bang's base of power was former Chu in the South.

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics by Louisa Schein

 

 

 

Miao Textiles from China (Fabric Folios) by Gina Corrigan

 

 

 

 

Yao

The Yao nationality (瑤族; Vietnamese: người Dao) is a government classification for various minorities in China. They form one of the 55 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, where they reside in the mountainous terrain of the southwest and south. They also form one of the 54 ethnic groups officially recognized by Vietnam. In the last census, they numbered 2,637,421 in China, and roughly 470,000 in Vietnam.

Early History: Origins of the Yao can be traced back 2000 years ago starting in South China.

Emigration: From the 15th to 19th century, the Yao migrated into Thailand, Vietnam and the highlands of Laos. The migration was agitated by the opium trade and as the result of revolts in Southern China during this period.

Laotian Civil War: During the Laotian Civil War, Yao tribes of Laos had a good relationship with U.S. forces and were dubbed to be an “efficient friendly force.” This relationship caused the Laotian government to target Yao tribal groups for revenge once the war was over. This triggered further immigration into Thailand, where the tribes would be put into camps along the Thailand-Laos border.

Immigration to the United States: After obtaining refugee status from the Thai government and with the help of the United Nations, many Yao people were able to obtain sponsorship into the United States (although many remain in Thailand, mostly in impoverished upland settlements in Northern Thailand). Most of the Yao who have immigrated to the United States have settled along the Western part of the U.S., mainly in Northern California such as Oakland, Oroville, Sacramento, but also in parts of Oregon and the state of Washington. See Mien American for those identified as Mien.

Culture: The typical houses of the Yao are rectangular and they have structures made of wood and bamboo. Normally it has three rooms: a room and two dormitories in the lateral side. Each one of these rooms has a small oven to cook.

The men and the women cover their heads with a black or red scarf. Some women substitute this scarf by a turban that can adopt different forms.

The traditional suit of the women is of bright colors. They also decorate their shirts with decorations made out of silver.

In Vietnam, Yao people celebrate many exciting and meaningful festivals such as Nhơn chung lỉnh (literally: Red rice, Green rice"), Nhiang chằm đao (literally: Jumping Festival)...

Groups and Languages

There are several distinct groups within the Yao nationality, and they speak several different languages, from different language families:

• Miao-Yao languages
  • The Mien speak Mienic languages (勉語) , including:
    • Mian-Jin languages
      • Iu Mien, 818,685 speakers (383,000 in China, 350,000 in Vietnam, 40,000 in Thailand, 20,250 in Laos, 70,000 in the United States)
      • Kim Mun (also known as Lanten), more than 300,000 Yao people
      • Biao Mon, 20,000 speakers
    • Dzao Min, 60,000 speakers
    • Biao-Jiao Mien, 43,000 speakers
  • Miao or Hmong languages
    • Bunu, 258,000 speakers
    • Wunai Bunu, 18,442 speakers.
    • Younuo Bunu, 9,716 speakers
    • Jiongnai Bunu, 1,078 speakers also known as the 'Flowery Blue Yao'
    • Some linguists group the above languages - with a total of more than 287,000 speakers - together as dialects of a single Bunu language (Bùnǔyǔ 布努语).
• Kradai languages
  • Lakkia (Lājiāyǔ 拉珈語/拉珈语), 12,000 speakers
• Chinese
  • about 500,000 Yao speak Chinese dialects

In addition to China, populations of Yao also live in Northern Vietnam (where they are called Dao), Northern Laos, and Burma. There are around 60,000 Yao in Northern Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. The lowland-living Lanten of Laos, who speak Kim Mun, and the highland-living Iu Mien of Laos are two different Yao groups. There are also many Yao living in the United States, mainly refugees from the highlands of Laos who speak the Iu Mien language. The Iu Mien do not call themselves "Yao". Not all "Yao" are Iu Mien.

A group of 61,000 people on the island of Hainan speak the Yao language Kim Mun, but see themselves as Miao (Hmong), and they are also officially categorized as Miao by the Chinese Government. 139,000 speakers of Kim Mun live in other parts of China (Yunnan and Guangxi), and 174,500 live in Laos and Vietnam.

The Bunu call themselves Nuox [no13], Buod nuox [po43 no13], Dungb nuox [tuŋ33 no13] or according to their official name Yaof zuf [ʑau21 su21]. Only 258,000 of the 439,000 people categorised as Bunu in the 1982 census speak Bunu; 100,000 speak Zhuang, and 181,000 speak Chinese and Bouyei.

Other Chinas: The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging by Ralph A.Litzinger

 

 

 

A History of Daoism and the Yao People of South China by Eli Alberts

 

 

 

 

 

Hui

The Hui people (回族 ) are a Chinese ethnic group, typically distinguished by their practice of Islam.

The term "Hui people" refers to one of the officially recognized 56 ethnic groups into which Chinese citizens are classified. Under this definition, the Hui people are defined to include all historically Muslim communities in People's Republic of China that are not included in China's other ethnic groups. Since China's Muslims speaking various Turkic, Mongolian, or Iranian languages are all included into those other groups (e.g., Uyghurs, Tajiks, or Dongxiang), the "officially recognized" Hui ethnic group consists predominantly of Chinese speakers. In fact, the "Hui nationality" is unique among China's officially recognized ethnic minorities in that it does not have any particular non-Chinese language associated with it.

Nonetheless, included among the Hui in Chinese census statistics (and not officially recognized as separate ethnic groups) are members of a few small non-Chinese speaking communities. Among them are several thousand Utsuls in southern Hainan province, who speak an Austronesian language (Tsat) related to that of the Cham Muslim minority of Vietnam, and who are said to be descended from Chams who migrated to Hainan. A small Muslim minority among Yunnan's Bai people are classified as Hui as well (even if they are Bai speakers), as are some groups of Tibetan Muslims.

The Hui people are concentrated in Northwestern China (Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang), but communities exist across the country, e.g. Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Yunnan, etc.

Most Hui are similar in culture to Han Chinese with the exception that they practice Islam, and have some distinctive cultural characteristics as a result. For example, as Muslims, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork, the most common meat consumed in Chinese culture, and have also given rise to their variation of Chinese cuisine, Chinese Islamic cuisine and Muslim Chinese martial arts. Their mode of dress also differs primarily in that men wear white caps and women wear headscarves or (occasionally) veils, as is the case in most Islamic cultures.

The Hui people are mixed blood. Their ancestors include Central Asian, Persian, Han Chinese, and Mongols. In ancient China, e.g. Tang and Yuan Dynasty, lots of people from Central Asian and Persia came to trade or pursue political careers. In the following nearly one thousand years, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Han Chinese, and the Hui people were formed. Because the Hui people have lived in China for so many years, they haven't retained Arabic and Central Asian languages, instead becoming Chinese speakers.

Apart from some minor characteristics, the majority of Hui people look much like Han Chinese, especially in eastern China.

 

 

Yi

photo by yi.peoples.org

The Yi people (彝族) are a modern ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Numbering 8 million, they are the seventh largest of the 55 minor ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. . They live primarily in rural areas of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, usually in mountainous regions.  

The Yi speak Yi, a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese. The Chinese government has grouped the Nisu, Nasu, Sani, Axi, Lolopo, Pu, and tens of dozens of other peoples speaking more than six completely distinct languages with dozens of dialects into a single group called the Yi. Because of this, a Yi from one area may not be able to communicate with a Yi from another area; and may or may not even agree that they both are Yi.

Most Yi are farmers; herders of cattle, sheep and goats; and nomadic hunters. Only about one third of the Yi are literate. Most have no written language.

Of the over 8 million Yi people, over 4.5 million live in Yunnan Province, 2.5 million live in southern Sichuan Province, and 1 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all the Yi live in mountainous areas, often carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.

Legend has it that the Yi are descended from the ancient Qiang people of today's Western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from Southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today.

The Yi language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman Language Group of the Sino-Tibetan Language Family, and the Yis speak six dialects. Many Yis in Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi know the Han (standard Chinese or Mandarin) language. The Yis used to have a syllabic script called the old Yi language, which was formed in the 13th century. It is estimated that the extant old Yi script has about 10,000 words, of which 1,000 are words of everyday use. A number of works of history, literature and medicine as well as genealogies of the ruling families written in the old Yi script are still seen in most Yi areas. Many stone tablets and steles carved in the old Yi script remain intact. Since the old Yi language is not consistent in word form and pronunciation, it was reformed after liberation for use in books and newspapers.

Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China by Stevan Harrell

 

 

 

 

 

Sui

Photo from China Daily

The Sui people (水族) are an ethnic group living in the Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan areas of southwestern China. They are counted as one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

It is believed that the Shui are descended from the Luo-Yue that inhabited the southeast coast of China before the Han dynasty. Their name of Shui, which means "water", was adopted during the Ming dynasty.

The Shui are organized around family clans. Their houses usually have one story, although some have two stories. In the latter, the second floor is used for the living quarters whereas the first floor is used primarily as a stable and food storage. If a woman is widowed, she covers her hair with a fabric of white color for three years. The Shui possess a lunar calendar that is initiated in the ninth lunar month. Their funeral services are elaborate and long ceremonies where animal sacrifices are carried out in honor of the dead.

The Shui are mainly polytheists and practice ancestor worship as well. Shamans were traditionally hired to carry out prayers and sacrifices in the houses of those that were sick or close to death.

Language: The Shui speak the Sui language of the Kradai family. Their language has eight tones, fewer than the Dong language which has 13. However, it does have a large number of consonants with forty-two.

 

 

Gin

Photo from efu.com.cn

Some areas of the southwestern People's Republic of China are inhabited by a small population of ethnic Vietnamese people (or Kinh). They are referred to in Chinese as the Jīng (京族), although Vietnamese transcription Gin people is the standard romanization of ethnic name in China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They speak Vietnamese, mixed with Cantonese dialect, and some Mandarin. They mainly live on 3 islands off the coast of Dongxing city, Fangchenggang, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The population of the Vietnamese native to China was just over 20,000 in 2000. This number does not include ethnic Vietnamese nationals from Vietnam studying or working in China.

京族，也稱為越族，是越南的主體民族，占越南總人口的86%，是狹義上的越南人。在中國境內，京族被視為少數民族之一。中華人民共和國國務院於1958年將中國境內的這個民族定名為京族，在越南官方也使用「京族」這一名稱來區別於越南境內其它民族。

從語言學的角度來看，京族的母語京語通常被認為屬於南亞語系，故京族一般被視為南亞語系民族。另有一種說法認為，京族是百越後裔的壯侗語系民族之雒越為主體，加入南島語系民族之占人、南亞語系民族之高棉人及漢藏語系民族之漢人而重新融合而成的民族。而由於長期受中國文化的影響，京族文化更接近於東亞而非東南亞。

中國境內的京族主要分佈在廣西壯族自治區東興市江平鎮的巫頭、澫尾（萬尾）、山心三個海島，俗稱「京族三島」，2000年有人口2.25萬人。中國境內的京族祖先是16世紀初開始陸續從越南北部的塗山等地遷徙而來的，至今約有500年的歷史。

根據一項在法國巴黎聖路易醫院所做的研究： 「研究比較表明京族與其他東方民族有密切的基因聯係」，但京族有七個獨特的基因特徵。這些研究成果，以及京族遺留的侗台酶形態，表明京族源於漢人和台語民族、馬來人。 根據另一項馬偕醫院的研究，京族和苗族、南漢（南中國）、布依族、傣族被歸類在同一基因組，該基因組又和新加坡華人、泰國華人、閩南人、客家人的基因同族。

 

 

Mulao

photo by paulnoll.com

The Mulao or Mulan (仫佬族) people are an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. In their name, Mulam, mu is a classifier for human beings and lam (in some dialects it is kyam) is another form of the name used by the Dong (Kam), whom the Mulam people are ethnically related to. A large portion of the Mulam in Guangxi live in Luocheng Mulao Autonomous County of Hechi, Guangxi.

It is believed that the Mulam are the descendants of the ancient Ling and Liao tribes (Liao dynasty?) that inhabited the region during the time of the Jin dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, the Mulam lived in a feudal society and they paid a series of tributes twice a year to the emperor. During the Qing dynasty, their territories suffered an administrative division; their lands were divided into dongs, which were composed of units for 10 dwellings. Each dong had its own local leader, responsible for maintaining the order and of collecting the taxes. Each dong was generally formed by families that shared the same surname.

The Mulam speak the Mulam language, a Tai-Kadai language. The Mulam language, like that of the Dong, does not has voice stops; however, it does contains unvoiced and voiced nasals and laterals. Its vowel system contains eleven vowels. It is a tonal language with ten tones and 65% of their vocabulary is shared with the Zhuang and Dong languages. Since the Ming dynasty, Chinese characters have been utilized to read and write the Mulam language. The majority of the Mulam also speak Chinese as well as the Zhuang and Dong languages

Mulam have a population of 159,328, 80% of which lives in Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The rest are scattered throughout Xincheng, Yishan, Liucheng, Du'an huanjiang, Hechi, Rongshui and Rong'an etc. in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.

 

 

Maonan

photo by paulnoll.com

The Maonan (毛南族; self name: Anan meaning local people) people are an ethnic group. They are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. The Maonan ethnic minority has a population of 107,166, living in the northern part of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, according to the Chinese government site.

Their language belongs to the Kam-Sui branch of the Tai-Kadai languages. Is a tonal language with eight tones. Approximately half of the members of this ethnic group they are capable of speaking this language. In addition to this, many Maonan also speak Chinese or Zhuang.

Interestingly, more than one 80% of the Maonan share the same surname: Tan. Maonan with the surname "Tan" believe that they are descended from the old inhabitants of the province of Hunan that emigrated to Guangxi and married Maonan women. Other frequent surnames found in this ethnic group are: Lu, Meng, Wei and Yan.

The towns of the Maonan do not surpass more than 100 dwellings. Their towns are organized by clan. Their dwellings, are very similar to those of the Zhuang, they are usually made up of two floors and constructed out of clay. The upper floor is used as the living quarters while the lower one serves as a granary and stable.

Yue Peoples: Yue (越,粵,鉞) literally: "beyond; Guangdong and Guangxi arearefers to ancient semi-Sinicized or non-Sinicized Chinese peoples of southern China, originally those along the eastern coastline of present-day Zhejiang province.

While most Yue peoples were eventually assimilated into Han Chinese culture, the Kam-Tai (Daic): Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Sui (Shui), Kam (Dong), Hlai (Li), Mulam, Maonan, Ong-Be (Lingao), Thai, Lao, Shan and the Vietnamese people retained their ethnic identity. The Vietnamese people eventually broke free from Chinese rule in the 10th century.

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Genetic Studies

 

* Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122 by Hong Shi, et al.

Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in the East Asian Populations Studied

 

The Frequency Distribution of the O3-M122 Haplotypes in East Asian and Other Continental Populations

 

The Map of Multidimensional Scaling Analysis Based on the O3-M122 SNP Haplotype Distribution

 

 

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan)

 

Phylogenic Tree of 10 Han Subpopulations and 14 Ethnic Minorities

(Han GD, Han GX, Zhuang, Yao, Miao, Dong, Li)

Han subpopulations: GS, Gansu; HLJ, Heilongjiang; JL, Jilin; NM, Inner Mongolia; ShX, Shaanxi; GD, Guangdong; GX, Guangxi; GZ Guizhou; H ~ N , Hunan; SC, Sichuan.

 

 

* Tracing the Legacy of the Early Hainan Islandersa Perspective from Mitochondrial DNA by Min-Sheng Peng, et al.

Principle Components Analysis (PCA) of Populations in Southern China and Vietnam

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

 

 

* Characteristics of Mongoloid and Neighboring Populations Based on the Genetic Markers of Human Immunoglobulins by H. Matsumoto

Abstract: Since the discovery in 1966 of the Gm ab3st gene, which characterizes Mongoloid populations, the distribution of allotypes of immunoglobulins (Gm) among Mongoloid populations scattered from Southeast Asia through East Asia to South America has been investigated, and the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Mongoloid populations can be characterized by four Gm haplotypes, Gm ag, axg, ab3st, and afb1b3, and can be divided into two groups based on the analysis of genetic distances utilizing Gm haplotype frequency distributions: the first is a southern group characterized by a remarkably high frequency of Gm afb1b3 and a low frequency of Gm ag, and the second, a northern group characterized by a high frequency of both Gm ag and Gm ab3st but an extremely low frequency of Gm afb1b3. 2. Populations in China, mainly Han but including minority nationalities, show remarkable heterogeneity of Gm allotypes from north to south and contrast sharply to Korean and Japanese populations, which are considerably more homogenous with respect to these genetic markers. The center of dispersion of the Gm afb1b3 gene characterizing southern Mongoloids has been identified as the Guangxi and Yunnan area in the southwest of China. 3. The Gm ab3st gene, which is found with its the highest incidence among the northern Baikal Buriats, flows in all directions. However, this gene shows a precipitous drop from mainland China to Taiwan and Southeast Asia and from North to South America, although it is still found in high frequency among Eskimos, Koryaks, Yakuts, Tibetans, Olunchuns, Tungus, Koreans, Japanese, and Ainus. On the other hand, the gene was introduced into Huis, Uyghurs, Indians, Iranians, and spread as far as to include Hungarians and Sardinians in Italy. On the basis of these results, it is concluded that the Japanese race belongs to northern Mongoloids and that the origin of the Japanese race was in Siberia, and most likely in the Baikal area of the Soviet Union.

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Population Analyzed

 

Two-dimensional PC Plot of mtDNA of Han Populations

 

PC Map of Y Chromosome of Han Chinese

 

 

* Pinghua Population as an Exception of Han Chinese's Coherent Genetic Structure by Rui-Jing Gan, et al.

Abstract: The Han Chinese is the largest single ethnic group in the world, consisting of ten Chinese branches. With the exception of the Pinghua branch, the genetic structure of this group has been studied extensively, and Y chromosome and mitochondrial (mt)DNA data have demonstrated a coherent genetic structure of all Han Chinese. It is therefore believed that the Pinghua branch, being members of an old branch of the Han Chinese, despite being scattered in and around Guangxi Province where members of the Daic and Hmong-Mien are more prevalent than Han Chinese, is no exception. We have studied 470 individual samples (including 195 males) from Pinghua populations and other ethnic groups (Zhuang, Kam, Mulam, Laka, and Mien) from six areas (Hezhou, Fuchuan, Luocheng, Jinxiu, Sanjiang, and Wuxuan) in the north of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of China. Both mtDNA and the Y chromosomes were typed in these samples. High frequencies of the Y chromosome haplogroups O2a* and O*, which always present at a high frequency among the populations of the southern minorities, were found in Pinghua populations. Only Pinghua populations in Luocheng and Jinxiu maintain the Han frequent haplogroup O3a5a. mtDNA lineages B4a, B5a, M*, F1a, M7b1, and N* were found in Pinghua populations, exhibiting a pattern similar to the neighboring indigenous populations, especially the Daic populations. Cluster analyses (dendrograms, principal component analyses, and networks) of Pinghua populations, the other Han branches, and other ethnic groups in East Asia indicated that Pinghua populations are much closer to the southern minorities than to the other Han branches. Admixture analyses confirmed this result. In conclusion, we argue that Pinghua populations did not descend from Han Chinese, but from southern minorities. The ancestral populations of Pinghua people were assimilated by the Han Chinese in terms of language, culture, and self-identification and, consequently, the Pinghua people became an exceptional branch of Han Chinese's coherent genetic structure.

 

 

* Y-chromosome Genotyping and Genetic Structure of Zhuang Populations by Jing Chen, et al.

Abstract: Zhuang, the largest ethnic minority population in China, is one of the descendant groups of the ancient Bai-Yue. Linguistically, Zhuang languages are grouped into northern and southern dialects. To characterize its genetic structure, 13 East Asian-specific Y-chromosome biallelic markers and 7 Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (STR) markers were used to infer the haplogroups of Zhuang populations. Our results showed that O*, O2a, and O1 are the predominant haplogroups in Zhuang. Frequency distribution and principal component analysis showed that Zhuang was closely related to groups of Bai-Yue origin and therefore was likely to be the descendant of Bai-Yue. The results of principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis contradicted the linguistically derived north-south division. Interestingly, a west-east clinal trend of haplotype frequency changes was observed, which was supported by AMOVA analysis that showed that between-population variance of east-west division was larger than that of north-south division. O* network suggested that the Hongshuihe branch was the center of Zhuang. Our study suggests that there are three major components in Zhuang. The O* and O2a constituted the original component; later, O1 was brought into Zhuang, especially eastern Zhuang; and finally, northern Han population brought O3 into the Zhuang populations.

 

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia
Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variations of Zhuang Ethnic Group in Guangxi by ZG Yuan, et al.

Abstract: The mtDNA hypervariable segment I sequences (515bp) were sequenced in Zhuangs from Gunngxi Province, with the aim to learn more about the origin and genetic structure of the current Zhuangs. 66 haplotypes were identified in the samples, with 71 sites showing polymorphism. Phylogenetic analysis of the 66 haplotypes suggests that there are geographic differentiation in current Zhuangs, and those from the 4 geographic regions (Nanning, Hechi, Baise and Liuzhou) have different distribution frequencies in the cluster I, II and III in the tree. More than 50% individuals from Liuzhou and Hechi converge into cluster II, while those from Nanning and Baise have high frequency in cluster I. Combined with the analysis of the reported data, the Zhuang ethnic group shows remote affinity to those from North China, whereas it is close to those in South China. The frequencies of the radiation groups in Zhuangs, together with the phylogenetic relationship of the Zhuang ethnic group in the tree suggest that the Zhuang is a typical south population.

 

 

* 广西瑶族三个群体线粒体遗传多态分析 by 高嵩, et al.

摘要: 瑶族是苗瑶系统中的一个民族,拥有数量众多的支系,广泛分布于中国西南地区. 对广西瑶族的三个支系(蓝靛瑶、平地瑶、盘瑶) 共100 个个体样本的mtDNA 高变Ⅰ区序列以及13 个RFL P 位点进行了基因分型,并与全国各地其他少数民族、汉族群体的数据进行比较分析. 得出结论:瑶族在线粒体遗传结构上属于南方聚类,并且接近地理位置邻近的周边民族群体.

 

 

* Genetic Relationships of 15 Populations of Guangxi Province by Jin Tianbo, et al.

Objective: To study the genetic relationships of 15 groups of Guangxi Province, China by using STR polymorphisms. Methods: We collected the blood samples of unrelated individuals from different groups and sequenced the STR data with ABI377 , and then analyzed all these data with statistical methods . Results: The study on 6 STR loci showed that Jing and Miao nationalities of Guangxi Province were close to each other, while Yao, Gelao and Mulam nationalities of Guangxi were far from the other groups. Conclusion: The 15 different ethnic groups of Guangxi , China have gene communications .

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variations of Shui Ethnic Group by YS Yu, et al.

Abstract: The mtDNA hypervariable segment I sequences (HVS I) were sequenced in 64 Shuis from Guizhou Province. 73 sites were polymorphic in the 495 bp fragment that sequenced, identified 48 different haplotypes. Phylogenetic analysis of the haplotypes suggested that there were some ancestral haplotypes in current Shuis, and these haplotypes were also present in Eurasia populations as well as in other ethnic groups. Demographic analysis of the Shuis demonstrated a unimodal distribution that is typical for a population undergone expansion in the past and with a high Tau value, which suggested that the Shui group might be a ancestral population. Combined with the analysis of the reported data, the Shui ethnic group showed a generally similar genetic component with the Zhuang from Guangxi, but it is also different from these typical south populations as Zhuang, Cantonese.

 

 

* Growth and Anemia Status Investigation of 0-2 Years Infant and Child in Poor Rural Areas of Guangxi Autonomous Region by L. Ma, et al.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate and analysis the growth and anemia status of 0-2 years old infant and child in poor rural areas of Guangxi autonomous region. METHODS: 659 child under 2 years old were selected randomly to measure the length, weight and hemoglobin concentration, and to get the child basic condition information through questionnaire. RESULTS: In this area, the percent of 0-2 years old child growth retardation was 24.6%, under weight was 19.5%, wasting was 11.4% and anemia was 22.6%. CONCLUSION: The malnutrition and anemia status of 0-2 years old infant and child in investigated areas was severe.

 

 

* The ADH1B Arg47His Polymorphism in East Asian Populations and Expansion of Rice Domestication in History by Yi Peng, et al.

The Distribution of the ADH1B*47His Allele and the Sites of Early Rice Relics

 

The Distribution of the ADH1B*47His Allele in the 38 East Asian Populations

 

 

* ADH1B Arg47His Polymorphism Is Associated with Esophageal Cancer Risk in High-Incidence Asian Population: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis by Guohong Zhang, et al.

Excerpt: Some alleles that increase the risk of complex diseases like cancers, are ancestral. Both historical records of migration and genetic fingerprints of East Asians and ancient population in Central China suggested there were some common ancestries in populations along the ‘‘Asian esophageal cancer belt’’. The ADH1B*47His allele is highly prevalent in Asian populations, particularly in northeast Asians (i.e., Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans). It was proposed the ADH1B*47His allele may serve better as an ancestral marker for understanding expansions and migrations of ancient Central China populations, and is related to disease susceptibility and natural selection as well. Except for in East Asia, a high frequency of the ADH1B*47His allele is also found in West Asian countries such as Iran and Turkey, where high-incidence regions of ESCC exist, too. Such a worldwide double-peak pattern of frequency distribution of the ADH1B* 47His allele was argued to be the result of independent increase of the derived allele in both western and eastern Asia after humans had spread across Eurasia. Based on these facts and findings, we propose that ADH1B*47Arg is a risk factor for ESCC in Asian populations that stems from recent common ancestralness of them.

 

 

* Molecular Analyses of HLA-DRB1, -DPB1, and -DQB1 in Jing Ethnic Minority of Southwest China by JH Lin, et al.

Abstract: In the present study, DNA typing for HLA-DRB1, DQB1 and DPB1 was performed using polymerase chain reaction-sequencing based typing (PCR-SBT) method in 144 random selected Jing ethnic individuals inhabiting in South China. Allele frequencies and two-locus haplotypes (DRB1-DQB1) were statistically analyzed and 20 DPB1 alleles, 27 DRB1 and 20 DQB1 were detected. The most frequent DPB1 allele was DPB1*0501 with the percentage of 36.9% followed by DPB1*1301 (15.7%), DPB1*0401 (11.0%) and DPB1*020102 (9.8%). Among the 27 detected DRB1 alleles, DRB1*120201 (13.8%) was most commonly observed followed by DRB1*150201, *030101 and *090102 alleles with the frequencies of 9.4%, 9.1% and 8.3%, respectively. Among the 20 detected DQB1 alleles the most predominant one was DQB1*030101/0309 (19.9%). DQB1*050201 (19.1%), DQB1*0201/0202 (16.1%) and DQB1*050101 (12.3%) were also frequently observed in Jing population. Statistical analysis of two-locus haplotypes showed that DRB1*120201-DQB1*030101/DRB1*120201-DQB1*0309 (HF = 9.4%, D = 6.65x10(-2)) was most predominant followed by DRB1*030101-DQB1*0201/DRB1*030101-DQB1*0202 (HF = 8.1%, D = 6.66 x 10(-2)). The comparison of HLA class II allele and haplotype frequencies in Jing with those in other populations all over the world and a dendrogram based on the DRB1, DQB1 and DPB1 genes suggested that Jing ethnic population has an origin of Southeast Asia and is belonged to the southern group of Chinese populations.

 

 

Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

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Tai-Kadai Languages

The Tai-Kadai languages, also known as Daic, Kadai, Kradai, or Kra-Dai, are a language family of highly tonal languages found in southern China and Southeast Asia. They include Thai and Lao, the national languages of Thailand and Laos respectively. There are nearly 100 million speakers of these languages in the world. Ethnologue lists 92 languages in this family, with 76 of these languages being in the Kam-Tai branch.

The diversity of the Tai-Kadai languages in southeastern China, especially in Guizhou and Hainan, suggests that this is close to their homeland. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only about a thousand years ago, founding the nations that later became Thailand and Laos in what had been Austroasiatic territory.

The name "Tai-Kadai" comes from an obsolete bifurcation of the family into two branches, Tai and Kadai (all else). Since this Kadai can only be a valid group if it includes Tai, it is sometimes used to refer to the entire family; on the other hand, some references narrow its usage to the Kra branch of the family.

 

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent Sagart

The An Settlement of Taiwan With the MP and TK Migrations

[a]: The pre-Austronesians, from NE China, expand southward along the SE China seaboard in the 5th and early 4th millennia BC: they cultivate rice, foxtail millet, exploit marine resources, practice tooth evulsion. [b]: the Nanri and Pingtan islands, from which the top of Mt Xueshan (3884 m., at center of 200-km radius visibility circle) can be seen, are reached. From there one group crosses to Taiwan c. 3500 BC, while [c] the rest continues expanding in a SW direction towards the Pearl River Delta. [1]: location of earliest An (PAnspeaking) settlements on Taiwan. [2]: location of Pituish, [3] location of Enemish, [4] location of Walu-Siwaish, [5] location of Muish, [6] Tai-Kadai migration, [7] Malayo-Polynesian migration, c. 2000 BC.

 

Enriched Higher An Phylogeny Based on Basic-Lexical and Morphological Innovations (gray area at bottom)

Taxon names are in bold type. To the exception of the NE-Formosan languages Kavalan and Ketagalan, no claim is made that the languages whose names are in the same column (for instance Luilang, Pazeh and Saisiat) form a taxon. Dotted arrows indicate an oversea migration. 'FATK' = Formosan Ancestor of Tai-Kadai; 'FAMP' = 'Formosan Ancestor of Malayo-Polynesian'.

 

Excerpt: The position of Tai-Kadai: The observant reader will have noticed that Table 4 includes two languages named 'FATK' and 'FAMP'. These acronyms means 'Formosan Ancestor of Tai-Kadai' and 'Formosan Ancestor of Malayo-Polynesian' respectively. With respect to the former, the claim is being made that, contrary to common sense, the Tai-Kadai languages are descended from an East Formosan language: in effect, that they are a branch of Austronesian, and specifically, a subgroup of Muic.

The modern Tai-Kadai languages are spoken in parts of south China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma and Assam. Ostapirat (2000)21 distinguishes three branches: Hlai in Hainan, and on the mainland Kam-Tai and Kra, but in a more recent paper (in press), he suggests a different classification, with a northern branch (Kra and Kam-Sui) and a southern branch (Hlai and Tai). The Tai-Kadai languages outside of south-east China and adjacent areas of Vietnam are all within the Tai subgroup, and are very homogeneous. This is due to the historically well-attested expansion of Tai speakers in the late first and early second millennia AD. The area of highest diversity is in the northeast part of the Tai-Kadai domain: in Hainan Island, in northern Vietnam, and in the Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Guizhou. This is presumably where the TK homeland was located (although some of the original diversity must have been lost to Chinese in Guangdong province).

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History of Guangxi

Part of the region officially became part of China in 214 BC, when the army of the Qin Dynasty claimed most of southern China. The name "Guangxi" can be traced to the Song Dynasty, which administered the area as a circuit called the Guangnanxi Circuit (literally "Guang-South West Circuit"). During the late Mongol Yuan Dynasty the name was revived again to name a province in the region, but it was shortened to "Guangxi", or "Guang-West". For the next six centuries, Guangxi was a province of China, until its conversion into an autonomous region by the People's Republic of China because of its large minority population.

During the late Qing Dynasty, Guangxi was the site of the Jintian Uprising (金田起义), which occurred in what is now Guiping county in eastern Guangxi on January 11, 1851. On March 23, 1885, Zhennan Pass (now Youyi Pass) on the border with Vietnam was also the site of the Battle of Bang Bo (镇南关战役) during the Sino-French War. During the battle, a French incursion was routed by Chinese forces under Feng Zicai (冯子才), an event that has been exalted by subsequent Chinese nationalism.

After the founding of the Republic of China, Guangxi served as the base for one of the most powerful warlord cliques of China: the Old Guangxi Clique. Led by Lu Jung-t'ing (陆荣廷) and others, the clique was able to take control of neighbouring Hunan and Guangdong provinces as well. The Old Guangxi Clique crumbled in the early 1920s, to be replaced by the New Guangxi Clique, led by Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi. Guangxi is also noted for the Baise Uprising (百色起义), a communist uprising led by Deng Xiaoping in 1929. Communist bases were set up, but eventually destroyed by Kuomintang forces.

In 1944, near the end of World War II, Japan invaded Guangxi as part of Operation Ichigo (also known as the Henan-Hunan-Guangxi Campaign (豫湘桂战役), in an attempt to seize the Hunan-Guangxi railway line and open a land link to French Indochina. The operation succeeded and most major cities in Guangxi came under Japanese occupation.

Being in the far south, Guangxi was not taken by communist forces until after the People's Republic was formed; it joined in December 1949, two months after the People's Republic's foundation. In 1958, Guangxi was converted into an autonomous region for the Zhuang, by recommendation of Premier Zhou Enlai. This decision was made because the Zhuang were one of the biggest minority groups in China, and were mostly concentrated in Guangxi; however, they form a minority of Guangxi's population.

For most of its history, Guangxi was landlocked. In 1952, a small section of Guangdong's coastline was given to Guangxi, giving it access to the sea. This was reversed in 1955, then restored in 1965.

While some development of heavy industry occurred in the province in the 1960s and 1970s, it remained largely a tourist destination and home of scenery which brought people from all over the world. Even the economic growth in China in the 1990s seemed to leave Guangxi behind.

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Nanyue

Nanyue (南越) was an ancient kingdom that consisted of parts of the modern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and much of modern northern Vietnam. The kingdom was established by the Chinese general Zhao Tuo (趙佗) of the Qin dynasty who assimilated the customs of the Yue peoples and central China in his territory. Its capital was named Panyu (番禺), in today's Guangzhou, China. In Vietnam, the name Triệu Dynasty (based on the Vietnamese pronunciation of the surname Zhào) is used to refer to the lineage of kings of Nanyue, and by extension the era of Nanyue rule.

History of Nanyue: The history of Nányuè was written in Records of the Grand Historian by Han Dynasty historian Sima Qian, between 109 BC to 91 BC.

After the first Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang united China by conquering all six kingdoms in 219 BC, he ordered his generals to conquer the regions of present-day Guangdong and Guangxi. The conquest was completed in 214 BC. A new administrative unit, Nánhǎi Commandery (南海郡) was formed to rule the area corresponding approximately to present-day Guangdong. Zhào Tuō was appointed to manage a Lóngchuān (龍川), a strategic place in the military. He asked Qin Shi Huang to send 500 thousand people from Central China to Nánhǎi to assimilate the culture of Central China and Yuè.

Establishment: After the death of Qin Shi Huang, a wave of anti-Qin riots swept across central China and the Qin Dynasty soon capitulated. In 208 BC, the head of Nánhǎi Commandery, Rèn Xiāo (任囂), appointed Zhào Tuō to succeed his position and suggested that Zhao establish a country in the south and take advantage of the mountainous boundary with northern China. Zhao soon reinforced the defences in the mountain passes north and replaced the Qin officials with his own followers. In 203 BC, he conquered another two commanderies, Guìlín (桂林郡, approximately Guangxi) and Xiàng "Elephant" (象郡, approximately Yunnan, north and central Vietnam), at the south of the mountain. The new kingdom of Nányuè was born, with Pānyú as the capital; Zhào Tuō declared himself Wǔ Wáng (武王, lit. martial king) of Nányuè.

Liu Bang, after years of war with his rivals, established the Han dynasty and reunified Central China in 202 BC. Liu and his successors adopted a policy of peace to give his empire time to regenerate. In 211 BC, the emperor Liu sent Lù Jiǎ (陸賈) to Nányuè to appoint Zhào Tuō as the King of Nányuè. Trade relations were established at the border between Nányuè and the Han kingdom of Changsha. Although formally a Han subject state, Nányuè retained a large measure of effective autonomy.

After the death of Liu Bang in 195 BC, the government was put in the hands of his wife, Empress Lü Zhi, who served as empress dowager over their son Emperor Hui of Han and then Emperor Hui's sons Liu Gong and Liu Hong. Zhao Tuo believed that Wu Chen (吳臣), the Prince of Changsha, had made false accusations against him to get Empress Dowager Lü to block the trade between the states and to prepare to conquer the Nanyue to merge into his principality of Changsha. In revenge, he then declared himself the emperor of Nányuè and attacked the principality of Changsha. Lǚ sent general Zào (灶) to punish the Zhào Tuō. The hot and humid weather made soldiers fall ill and the army unable to go south of the mountains. The army withdrew. With the military success, Zhào Tuō took in the surrounding states of Mǐnyuè (閩越) in the east and Ōuluò (甌雒) in the west as subject kingdoms. The empress dowager then killed some of Zhao's clan members within Han territory and damaged his ancestors' tombs.

In 179 BC, Liu Heng ascended the Emperor of Han. He reversed the policy of the empress. He ordered officials to visit the family town Zhēndìng (真定), garrison the town and make offerings to his ancestors regularly. His prime minister Chén Píng (陳平) suggested sending Lù Jiǎ to Nányuè as they were familiar with each other. Zhào Tuō felt surprised on Lù's arrival. He then withdrew his title of emperor and Nányuè became Han's subject state.

Zhao Mo: In 137 BC, Zhao Tuo died. His grandson Zhao Mo (趙眛; also known as Zhao Hu, 趙胡, in the Records of the Grand Historian) succeeded the king of Nanyue. Ying Xing (郢興), the king of Minyue, attacked Nanyue. Zhao Mo asked the Emperor Liu Che to send troops to halt the attack of Minyue. The emperor sent two generals to Minyue. Before Han's advancing to Minyue, Ying Xing's younger brother Yu Shan (餘善) killed Ying Xing and surrendered.

The emperor Liu Che sent Zhuang Zhu (莊助) to Nanyue. Zhao Mo thanked the Emperor and sent his son Zhao Yingqi (趙嬰齊) to the Han capital, Chang'an. He also wanted to go Chang'an but was stopped by his minister for fear that he could not return and it would be the end of the kingdom. He thus pretended to be sick and stayed in Nanyue. He really fell sick later for over 10 years and died. He received the posthumous name Wen Di (文帝).

Zhao Yingqi: Zhao Yingqi returned to Nanyue and succeeded the king. He married a woman of family Jiu (樛) from Handan and born a son Zhao Xing (趙興) when he was in Chang'an. He asked the Emperor to appoint Jiu as his queen and Zhao Xing his crown prince. He sent his second son to Chang'an. Zhao Yingqi died with posthumous name Ming Wang (明王).

Zhao Xing: Zhao Xing succeeded Zhao Yingqi as king. As the king was young, the king's mother Jiu took control of the kingdom. In 113 BC, the Emperor sent Anguo Shaoji (安國少季) to Nanyue ask the king and the king's mother to visit the Emperor. Anguo Shaoji was in fact Jiu's lover when she was in Chang'an. They renewed their affair which made the subjects mistrust the king's mother. To secure their positions, the king and his mother wanted Nanyue to be a kingdom within the Han Empire. The king, his mother, and Anguo Shaoji tried to persuade Lu Jia (呂嘉) and other ministers to follow. Lu Jia stood and left. The king's mother tried to kill him but stopped by the king.

Lu Jia refused to meet the king and planned to revolt. As he knew the king had no intention to kill him, the plan was not carried out for months.

Zhao Jiande: The minister Lu Jia revolted and killed the king and the king's mother. He named Zhao Jiande (趙建德), the eldest son of Zhao Yingqi, to be the king of Nanyue. In autumn 112 BC the emperor sent a navy of a hundred thousand strong to attack Nanyue. In winter 111 BC the capital Panyu fell and many surrendered. Lu Jia and Zhao Jiande fled out to sea but were captured soon. Nanyue was officially incorporated into Han.

Kings

personal name				reign name				reign period	other names
Chinese	Quốc ngữ	Pinyin	Cantonese	Chinese	Quốc ngữ	Pinyin	Cantonese
趙佗/趙他	Triệu Đà	Zhào Tuó	Chiu To/Chiu Ta	武王	Vũ Vương	Wǔ Wáng	Mo Wong	203–137 BCE
趙眜	Triệu Mạt	Zhào Mò	Chiu Mut	文王	Văn Vương	Wén Wáng	Man Wong	137–122	趙胡
趙嬰齊	Triệu Anh Tề	Zhào Yīngqí	Chiu Ying-chai	明王	Minh Vương	Míng Wáng	Ming Wong	122–115
趙興	Triệu Hưng	Zhào Xìng	Chiu Hing	哀王	Ai Vương	Āi Wáng	Oi Wong	115–112
趙建德	Triệu Kiến Đức	Zhào Jiàndé	Chiu Kin-tak	陽王	Dương Vương	Yáng Wáng	Yeung Wong	112–111

Archaeological Findings: The Nanyue Kingdom Palace Ruins, located in the city of Guangzhou covers 15,000 square metres. Excavated in 1995, it contains the remains of the ancient Nanyue palace. In 1996, it was listed as protected National Cultural Property by the Chinese government. Crescent-shaped ponds, Chinese gardens and other Qin architecture were discovered in the excavation.

In 1983, the ancient tomb of the Nanyue King Wang Mu (王墓) was discovered in Guangzhou, Guangdong. In 1988, the Museum of the Tomb of the King of Southern Yue in Western Han Dynasty was constructed on this site, to display more than 1000 excavated artefacts including 500 pieces of bronzes, 240 pieces of jade and 246 pieces of metal. In 1996, the Chinese government listed this site as a protected National Heritage Site.

A bronze seal inscribed "Seal for Captain of Tu Pho County" was uncovered at Thanh Hoa in northern Vietnam during the 1930s. Owing to the similarity to seals found at the tomb of the second king of Nam Viet, this bronze seal is recognized as an official seal of the Nam Viet Kingdom. There were artifacts that were found in which belonged to the Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam. The goods were found buried alongside the tomb of the second king of Nam Viet.

Vietnam: Nam(Nan) means "south" and thus the term Nam Viet(Nan Yue) means "Southern Viet(Yue)." Nam Viet is the modern Vietnamese notation, while Nan Yue is the modern Chinese (Mandarin) pronunciation. In historical studies "Nam Viet(Nan Yue)" is used in this way as either a geographical or a historic concept

The people of Vietnam regained independence and broke away from China in 938 AD after their victory at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. They formed their own kingdom and called it Đại Việt"大越“ (The Great Việt Kingdom). This kingdom grew stronger; it expanded south and conquered the Champa kingdom (in central Vietnam) and most of the Khmer empire (in present-day southern Vietnam), forcing the Khmer to migrate. In 1800s, Nguyen Anh, a Vietnamese Emperor, wanted to change his kingdom's name from Dai Viet to Nam Viet, however there wasn't an agreement politically. The Kinh people (a subset of the Yue/Yuet/Viet peoples) form the modern majority ethnic group of Vietnam.

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Yue Peoples

Yue (越 or 鉞; also seen as Yueh or Yuet) refers to ancient semi-Sinicized or non-Sinicized peoples of southern China, originally those along the eastern coastline of present-day Zhejiang province. In archaic Chinese, a number of characters (越, 粵, 鉞) were often used interchangeably to represent the same meaning.

Origins and Ancient Usage: In ancient times, the northern Han Chinese referred to the peoples to their south collectively as the Yue. Historian Luo Xianglin has suggested that these peoples shared a common ancestry with the Xia Dynasty. There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. Historical texts often refer to the Hundred Yue tribes (百越. There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. The "Treatise of Geography" in Han Shu notes: "In the seven or eight thousand li from Jiaozhi to Kuaiji (modern southern Jiangsu or northern Zhejiang) the Hundred Yue are everywhere, each with their own clans." Just as the term Celt was used by the Greeks to describe what they perceived to be a broad cultural group, so the term Yue was a culturally relative term for the ancient Chinese. Also like "Celt", Yue is now used in a number of different ways.

Ethnolinguists have suggested that the pronunciaton of Yue may be related to a type of hemp produced in what is now Zhejiang. The character itself is related to the character for "ceremonial axe" (鉞), usually considered a symbol of royal or imperial authority. A number of stone axes have been found in the area of Hangzhou, and there is evidence that the ceremonial axe was a southern invention.

Ancient texts mention a number of Yue peoples. Most of these names survived into early imperial times and can be roughly construed as cultural groupings:

Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Cantonese Yale	Vietnamese	Notes
雒越	Luòyuè	Lokyuht	Lạc Việt	Sea Bird Yue
閩越	Mǐnyuè	Mànyuht	Mân Việt	River Yue
西甌	Xī'ōu	Sāi'āu	Tây Âu	West Valley Yue
甌越	Ōuyuè	Āuyuht	Âu Việt	(East) Valley Yue
滇越,盔越	Diānyuè, Kuīyuè	Dīnyuht, Kwaīyuht	Điền Việt, Khôi Việt	Heavenly Yue, Basin Yue
東越	Dōngyuè	Dōngyuht	Đông Việt	Eastern Yue
於越	Yūyuè	Yūyuht	Ư Việt	Major Yue
揚越	Yángyuè	Yèungyuht	Dương Việt	Ocean Yue
幹越	Gānyuè	Gonyuht	Cán Việt	Main Yue
山越	Shānyuè	Saānyuht	Sơn Việt	Mountain Yue
夜郎	Yèláng	Yehlòng	Dạ Lang	Night Yue
句吳	Gōuwú	Geui'ngh	Câu Ngô
南越	Nányuè	Naàhmyuht	Nam Việt	Southern Yue

Sinification and Displacement: From the Ninth century BC, two northern Yue peoples, the Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue, were increasingly influenced by their Chinese neighbours to their north. These two states were based in the areas of what is now southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang respectively. Their aristocratic elite learned the written Chinese language and adopted Chinese political institutions and military technology. Traditional accounts attribute the cultural change to the Grand Earl of Wu (吳太伯), a Zhou prince who had fled to the south. The marshy lands of the south gave Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue unique characteristics. They did not engage in extensive agrarian agriculture, relying instead more heavily on aquaculture. Water transport was paramount in the south, so the two states became advanced in shipbuilding and developed riverine warfare technology. They were also known for their fine swords.

In the Spring and Autumn Period, the two states, now called Wu and Yue, were becoming increasingly involved in Chinese politics. In 512 BC, Wu launched a large expedition against the large state of Chu, based in the Middle Yangtze River. A similar campaign in 506 succeeded in sacking the Chu capital Ying. Also in that year, war broke out between Wu and Yue and continued with breaks for the next three decades. In 473 BC, the Yue king Goujian finally conquered Wu and was acknowledged by the northern states of Qi and Jin. In 333 BC, Yue was in turn conquered by Chu. The Kings of the state of Yue, and therefore its succesor state Minyue also claimed to be descended from Yu the Great of the chinese Xia dynasty. According to Sima Qian, Wu was founded by Wu Taibo, a brother of zhou wu wang, the King of the chinese Zhou dynasty.

After the unification of China by Qin Shi Huang, it became incorporated into the Chinese empire. The Qin armies also advanced south along the Xiang River to modern Guangdong and set up commanderies along the main communication routes. Throughout the Han Dynasty period two groups of Yue were identified, that of the Nan-Yue in the far south, who lived mainly in the area of what is now Guangdong, Guangxi, and Vietnam; and that of the Min-Yue who lay to the southeast, centred on the Min River in modern Fujian. The Kings of Minyue claimed to be descended from Yu the Great of the chinese Xia dynasty.

Sinification of these peoples was brought about by a combination of imperial military power, regular settlement and Chinese refugees. The difficulty of logistics and the malarial climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue peoples a slow process. When the Chinese came into contact with local Yue peoples, they often wrested control of territory from them or subjugated them by force. When a serious rebellion broke out in 40 AD by the Trung Sisters in what is now modern Vietnam, a force of some 10,000 imperial troops was dispatched under General Ma Yuan. Between 100 and 184 no less than seven outbreaks of violence took place, often calling for strong defensive action by the Chinese.

As Chinese migrants gradually increased, the Yue were gradually forced into poorer land on the hills and in the mountains. Unlike the nomadic peoples of Central Asia, such as the Xiongnu or the Xianbei, however, the Yue peoples never posed any serious threat to Chinese expansion or control. Sometimes they staged small scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements - termed "rebellions" by traditional historians. The Chinese for their part regarded them as being highly uncivilised and prone to fight one another.

While most Yue peoples were eventually sinicized, the Kam-Tai (Daic): Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Sui (Shui), Kam (Dong), Hlai (Li), Mulam, Maonan, Ong-Be (Lingao), Thai, Lao, Shan, and Vietnamese peoples retained their ethnic identities. Some of these peoples also have their own nation-states today. In particular, the Vietnamese people broke free from Chinese rule in the 10th century and have their own state to this day.

Legacy of the Yue Peoples: The fall of the Han Dynasty and the succeeding period of division sped up the process of sinification. Periods of instability and war in northern China, such as the Northern and Southern Dynasties and during the Song Dynasty led to mass migrations of Chinese. Intermarriage and cross-cultural dialogue has led to a mixture of Chinese and non-Chinese peoples in the south. By the Tang Dynasty, the term "Yue" had largely become a regional designation rather than a cultural one A state in modern Zhejiang province during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, for example, called itself "Wu-Yue". Likewise, the "Viet" in "Vietnam" (literally, "Viet South") is a cognate of the "Yue".

The impact of Yue culture on Chinese culture has not been determined authoritatively but it is clear that it is significant. The languages of the ancient states of Wu and Yue form the basis the modern Wu language and to some extent the Min languages of Fujian. Linguistic anthropologists have also determined that a number of Chinese words can be traced to ancient Yue words. An example is the word "jiang" (江), meaning river. To some extent, some remnants of the Yue peoples and their culture can also be seen in some minority groups of China and the Vietnamese people retain the identity.

Modern Usage: In modern Chinese, the characters of "越" and "粵" (both yuè) are differentiated. The former is used to refer to the original territory of the Yue Kingdom, the area of what is now northern Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and Shanghai, especially the areas around Shaoxing and Ningbo. The opera of Zhejiang, for example, is called "Yue Opera" (yueju, 越劇). The first character "越" is also associated with Vietnam. The second character "粵" (yuè) is associated with the southern province of Guangdong. Popularly called "Cantonese", both the standard form and regional dialects of the Cantonese language(Yue language) are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macau and in many Cantonese communities around the world.

* Tattooed Faces and Stilt Houses: Who Were the Ancient Yue? by Heather Peters

* Guangxi Baiyue Culture Exhibition at the National Museum of China in Beijing

 

 

East Asia Population Map

Historical documentation indicates that the Han were descended from the ancient Huaxia tribes of northern China. During the past two millennia, the Han culture (that is, the language and its associated culture) extended into southern China, a region inhabited by the southern natives, including those speaking Dai, Austro-Asiatic, Hmong-Mien and Tibeto-Burman languages. As Huaxia culture spread from its heartland in the Yellow River basin, it absorbed many distinct ethnic groups which then came to be identified as Han Chinese, as these groups adopted Han language (or variations of it) and customs.

 

 

Map of Bai-Yue Population and Migration (in years B.P.)

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Pearl River

The Pearl River (珠江) or less commonly, the "Guangdong (a.k.a. Canton) River" (Yue Jiang) (粵江), is China's third longest river (2,200 km, after the Yangtze River and the Yellow River), and second largest by volume (after the Yangtze). Located in the south, it flows into the South China Sea between Hong Kong and Macau. Its lower reach forms the Pearl River Delta.

The Pearl River is named after a sandy or stony island in the middle of the river called "Sea Pearl" (海珠). This island is now in the bank, due to the river's change of course.

It is formed by convergence of the Xi Jiang ("the West River"), the Bei Jiang ("the North River"), and the Dong Jiang ("the East River") . The river flows through the majority of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou Provinces, and parts of Hunan and Jiangxi, forming the 409,480 km² Pearl River Basin (珠江流域).

 

 

Liangguang

Liangguang (兩廣; literally "pair of Guangs", also spelled Liang-guang) is a term referring to the province of Guangdong and autonomous region (formerly province) of Guangxi on the southern coast of China. Before 1988, Guangdong province also included what is now the province of Hainan. The names of the two entities form a pair, as they literally mean "Guang-East" and "Guang-West". "Guang" itself means "expanse" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture (Guangzhou) in 226 AD. During the Qing Dynasty, the office of the Governor-General of Liangguang existed from 1735 to 1911 to oversee both provinces.

After 1988, the island of Hainan was separated from Guangdong province established as a separate province.

 

 

Gulf of Tonkin

The Gulf of Tonkin is an arm of the South China Sea. Covering an area of 126,250 km², the gulf borders Vietnam on the northwest, west and southwest. The Chinese mainland lies to the north while the Island of Hainan forms the eastern limits of the gulf. The gulf is notably shallow (less than 60 meters deep). Haiphong, Vietnam and Beihai, China are the chief ports. Numerous small islands are located in the gulf, most of which are concentrated in the northwestern gulf. Of note are larger islands of Bach Long Vi and Cat Ba of Vietnam and Weizhou of China. The Red River is the main river flowing into the Gulf.

The name Tonkin, written 東京 in Chinese characters and Đông Kinh in Vietnamese, means 'Eastern Capital', and is the former toponym for Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam. (Incidentally, the same Chinese characters are used to write "Tokyo", capital of Japan.)

 

 

Nanning

Nanning (南寧; meaning 'South Prosperity') is the capital of Guangxi autonomous region in southern China. It is known as the "Green City" because of its abundance of lush tropical foliage.

History: A county seat called Jinxing was first established at the site in AD 318. This became the administrative seat of a commandery. Nanning was once the territory of the Baiyue people and became the capital of Jinxing Prefecture separated from Yulin Prefecture of the Eastern Jin Dynasty.

In 589 the commandery was suppressed, and the county was renamed Xuanhua. Under the Tang dynasty (618–907) the prefecture of Yong (Yongzhou) was established there; it was garrisoned to control the non-Chinese districts in Guangxi and on the Yunnan–Guizhou provincial border. In the mid-9th century the Tang and the Yunnan state of Nanzhao fought over it, and after 861 it was briefly occupied by Nanzhao. It remained a frontier prefecture throughout the Song dynasty (960–1279), being the scene of a rebellion led by Nong Zhigao in 1052 and thereafter a garrison town.

In the Yuan Dynasty in 1324, it was renamed Nanning Lu (an administrative division) of Yongzhou Lu meaning "May peace maintain in the southern frontier", hence the name Nanning. Historically, Nanning was famous for trade, and had permanent business offices from other areas in China since the Song Dynasty.

Under the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, it was a superior prefecture. In the Ming Dynasty Nanning developed into the commodity distributing center of the Zuojiang River and the Youjiang River with the reputation of "Little Nanjing".

Opened to foreign trade by the Chinese in 1907, Nanning grew rapidly. From 1912 to 1936 it was the provincial capital of Guangxi, replacing Guilin.

Early in the 20th century the city spilled over from the old walled city into a southern suburban area. In the 1930s Nanning became the centre of a "model provincial government" under the warlord Li Zongren, and a spacious modern city was laid out. During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), Nanning was temporarily occupied in 1940 by the Japanese. It subsequently became an important U.S. air base supporting the Chinese armies in Guangxi, but during 1944–45 it was again under Japanese occupation.

In 1949 Nanning again became the provincial capital, first of Guangxi province and then (1958) of the renamed Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Until then Nanning had essentially been a commercial center dependent on Guangzhou and on the Xi River system. In the late 1930s a railway was begun, joining Hengyang in southern Hunan province with Guilin, Liuzhou, Nanning, and the Vietnam border, while another was begun from Liuzhou to Guiyang in Guizhou. The construction of the Nanning section of this line was halted in 1940 by the Japanese advances, however, and was not completed until 1951, after which Nanning was directly linked with central China; completion of a branch line to the port of Zhanjiang (in Guangdong) in 1957 gave it a direct outlet to the sea. During the French war in Indochina (1946–54), Nanning was the chief support base in China for the Vietnamese forces, and during the Vietnam War in the 1960s and early 1970s it again became a staging post for the sending of supplies southward to North Vietnam. It was also an important military supply center during the Sino-Vietnam confrontation in 1979.

After the recognition of the Zhuang ethnic minority in 1958, Nanning became the chief center for the training of Zhuang leaders.

 

 

Guilin

Guilin (桂林) is situated in the northeast of Guangxi on the west bank of the Li River. Its name means "forest of Sweet Osmanthus", owing to the large number of fragrant Sweet Osmanthus trees located in the city. The city has long been renowned for its unique scenery.

Guilin prospered in the Tang and Song dynasties but remained a county. The city was also a nexus between the central government and the southwest border, and it was where regular armies were placed to guard that border. Canals were built through the city so that food supplies could be directly transported from the food-productive Yangtze plain to the farthest southwestern point of the empire.

Guilin rice noodles (桂林米粉) have been the local breakfast staple since the Qin dynasty and are renowned for their delicate taste. Specifically, the local specialty is noodles with horse meat, but this dish can also be ordered without the horse meat.

 

 

Yangshuo

Yangshuo County (陽朔縣) is a county in Guilin, Guangxi Province, China. Its seat is located in Yangshuo Town. Surrounded by karst peaks and bordered on one side by the Li River (漓江) it is easily accessible by bus or by boat from nearby Guilin. Over the years, it has become popular with foreign backpackers.

Activities: Visitors to Yangshuo can swim in the Li River or the cleaner Yu Long 遇龙河 (Dragon River), climb one of many nearby karst peaks, hire a bicycle for a cycling trip through the karst scenery, arrange a sightseeing trip on the Li River by bamboo raft or cruise boat, or visit a number of local cave systems, including a butterfly cave.

Zhang Yimou's folk musical, "Impression Liu Sanjie", is a popular extravaganza performed outdoors in a river and mountain setting with a cast of 600 singers and dancers.

Yangshuo is also China's foremost venue for rock climbing, with around 300 bolted routes and several companies offering guiding and equipment hire.

Much of the town's traditional culture has been absorbed into the tourist industry, and tourists can pay a fee to watch fishermen fishing with cormorants, hire local women in traditional ethnic dress to pose for photographs, or take classes in Chinese calligraphy, tea ceremony, or cooking.

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Autonomous Areas of China

In a similar fashion to the former Soviet Union's titular nations, a number of areas associated with one or more ethnic minorities are designated as autonomous within the People's Republic of China (PRC). These areas are recognized in the PRC's constitution and are nominally given a number of rights not accorded to other administrative divisions. The actual degree of autonomy of such regions is questioned. This is because their authority rests with the Constitution and the Law on Regional Autonomy, requiring leaders to seek prior approval from the National People's Congress (NPC) to pass legislation. This is not true for other provinces, which can pass legislation without such prior approval. For this reason, it has been contended that Autonomous regions are in fact "less autonomous."

Autonomous regions, prefectures, counties, and banners were established after communist takeover, following Soviet practice. At first, the nomenclature of these autonomous areas were somewhat confused, with autonomous regions appearing at the province, prefecture, county, and township levels. Eventually the nomenclature was standardized to the conventions used today.

The first autonomous region to be established was Inner Mongolia, created within communist-held territory in 1947, two years before the establishment of the People's Republic. Xinjiang was converted from a province to an autonomous region in 1955. Guangxi and Ningxia followed in 1957, and Tibet Autonomous Region was formally established in 1965.

Of the five autonomous regions, only Tibet has an absolute majority (>50%) of the designated ethnic group, namely, the Tibetans. Xinjiang has a plurality (<50%) of the designated ethnic group, the Uyghurs, though this is disputed by Uyghur independence advocates, who claim that the Han Chinese population in Xinjiang has been severely understated. The remaining 3 autonomous regions have absolute majorities of Han Chinese, the majority ethnicity of China.

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