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Guangdong

 

Major Cities

Dongguan, Foshan, Guangzhou, Huizhou, Jiangmen, Shenzhen, Shunde, Taishan, Zhongshan and Zhuhai, Chaozhou, Chenghai, Kaiping, Nanhai, Shantou, Shaoguan, Xinhui, Zhanjiang, Zhaoqing, Yangjiang and Yunfu.

 

Tourism

Notable attractions include Danxia Mountain, Yuexiu Hill in Guangzhou, Star Lake and the Seven Star Crags, Dinghu Mountain, and the Zhongshan Sun Wen Memorial Park for Sun Yat-sen in Zhongshan.

 

Hakka Cuisine

 

Cantonese Cuisine

 

Teochew Cuisine

 

Southern "Han"

GUANGDONG

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Guangdong (廣東) is a province on the southern coast of China. It overtook Henan and Sichuan to become the most populous province in China in January 2005, registering 79 million permanent residents and 31 million migrants who lived in the province for at least six months. The provincial capital of Guangzhou and economic hub Shenzhen are among the most populous and important cities in China.

Guangdong is the country's richest province with the highest total GDP among all provinces. Guangdong contributes approximately 12.5% of national economic output.

The province was the homeland and base of operations of Sun Yat-Sen, the widely accepted founder of modern China.

Guang" itself means "expanse" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. "Guangdong" and neighboring Guangxi literally mean "expanse east" and "expanse west". Together, Guangdong and Guangxi are called the "Dual-Guangs" (兩廣). The modern abbreviation 粵 (Yue) is related to the Hundred Yue (百越), a collective name for various peoples that lived in Guangdong and other areas in ancient times.

 

Relations with Hong Kong and Macau

Although both Hong Kong and Macau have historically been part of Guangdong before becoming colonies of the United Kingdom and Portugal, they became special administrative regions, a first-order administrative division, when their sovereignty was transferred to the People's Republic of China.

 

Geography

Guangdong faces the South China Sea to the south and has a total of 4,300 km of coastline. Leizhou Peninsula is on the southwestern end of the province. There are a few inactive volcanoes on Leizhou Peninsula. The Pearl River Delta is the convergent point of three upstream rivers: the East River, North River, and West River. The river delta is filled with hundreds of small islands. The province is geographically separated from the north by a few mountain ranges collectively called the Southern Mountain Range (南嶺). The highest peak in the province is Shikengkong 1,902 meters above sea level.

Guangdong borders Fujian province to the northeast, Jiangxi and Hunan provinces to the north, Guangxi autonomous region to the west, and Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions to the south. Hainan province is offshore across from the Leizhou Peninsula.

 

Culture

Guangdong is a multicultural province. The central region, which is also the political and economic center, is populated predominantly by Cantonese-speakers. This region is associated with Cantonese cuisine (粵菜). Cantonese opera (粵劇) is a form of Chinese opera popular in Cantonese speaking areas.

The Hakka people live in large areas of Guangdong, including Huizhou, Meizhou, Shenzhen, Heyuan, Shaoguan and other areas. Much of the Eastern part of Guangdong is populated by the Hakka people except for the Chaozhou and Hailufeng area. Hakka culture include Hakka cuisine (客家菜), Han opera (漢劇), Hakka Hanyue and sixian (traditional instrumental music) and Hakka folk songs (客家山歌).

The area around the cities of Chaozhou and Shantou in eastern Guangdong, forms its own cultural sphere. Here, the Teochew people, the people in Hailufeng and the people in Leizhou Peninsula speak Teochew (潮語), which is closely related to Min-nan and their cuisine is Teochew cuisine. Teochew opera (潮劇) is also very famous and has a unique form.

 

Demographics

Guangdong officially became the most populous province in January 2005. Official statistics had traditionally placed Guangdong as the 4th most populous province of China with about 80 million people, but recently released information suggests that there are an additional 30 million migrants who reside in Guangdong for at least six months every year, making it the most populous province with a population of more than 110 million. The massive influx of migrants from other provinces, dubbed the "floating population", is due to Guangdong's booming economy and high demand for labor.

Guangdong is also the ancestral home of large numbers of overseas Chinese. Most of the railroad laborers in Canada, Western United States and Panama in the 19th century came from Guangdong. Emigration in recent years has slowed with economic prosperity, but this province is still a major source of immigrants to North America and elsewhere in the world.

The majority of the province's population is Han Chinese. There is a small Yao population in the north. Other smaller minority groups include Miao, Li, and Zhuang.

 

 

 

Macro Geographical Areas in Chinese History

Chinese history is often explain in terms of several strategic areas, definite by particular topographic limits. Starting from the Chinese central plain, the former heart of the Han populations, the Han people expanded militarily and then demographically toward the Loess plateau, the Sichuan plain, and the Southern hills, not without resistance from local populations. Pushed by its comparatively higher demographic growth, the Han continued their expansion by military and demographic waves. The far-south of nowadays China, the northern parts of today's Vietnam, the Tarim basin were first reached and durably subdued by Han dynasty's armies. The northern steppes (Mongolia, Siberia), and the Tibetan plateau were softly vassalized in Tang times, and strongly integrated under the Yuan dynasty. The Manchurian plain and Korean peninsula were usually not under Chinese contol, with the exception of some limited periods of occupation. The Manchurian plain became strongly integrated into the Chinese empire during the late Qing dynasty, while the West side of the Changbai mountains, formerly the home of Korean tribes, thus also entered China.

 

 

Lingnan

Lingnan (嶺南) is a geographic area referring to lands in the south of China's "Five Ranges" which are Tayu, Qitian, Dupang, Mengzhu, Yuecheng. The region covers the Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Jiangxi provinces of modern China and northern Vietnam.

The area was inhabited by the Hundred Yue tribes and the motherland of ancient Nanyue. At that time, Lingnan was considered as a barbarian land and it had loose contact with the Zhongyuan region, which was the cultural cradle of Chinese culture. In the 2nd century BC, the region was absorbed into the Middle Kingdom, and its development had been boosted since the Ancient Meiguan Road (梅關古道) was paved.

Lingnan culture (嶺南文化) refers to the culture of Guangdong and the nearby provinces in southeastern China. It is the subject of research at institutions such as the Center for Lingnan Culture. It is typically contrasted with Zhongyuan culture, that of China's northern plains (Zhongyuan).

Old-fashioned shops in Wan Chai are typical examples of Lingnan architecture, comparable to those found in Guangzhou and Taipei. Attached to the second storey from the pavement, numerous pillars were built in front of the stores.

Lingnan architecture is concentrated at Xiguan. Built at the end of the Qing Dynasty, Baomo Garden is located at Zini Village near Shawan town of Panyu and is a fine example of classical Lingnan architecture. Once inside, exotic buildings, gardens, hills, lakes and bridges are found - a place that reveals interplay between nature's art and man-made art in forms of sculptures and edifices, which boast intricate clay, porcelain, brick, wood and stone carving. Chen Clan Temple is another representative of Lingnan architecture. The Temple was built in the sixteenth year (1890) of Guangxu Emperor of the Qing Dynasty and served as an academy for Chen families in 72 counties of the Guangdong Province. It comprises all sorts of folk architectural and decorative arts, and is famous for its "Three Carvings" (stone, wood and brick carvings), "Three sculptures" (ceramic sculpture, clay sculpture and colorful sculpture) and "One cast" (cast iron). Therefore, it is called the best of all the clan temples in neighbourhood.

Today, some building elements of Lingnan architecture are adapted in constructions of commercial districts in Guangzhou. In streets like Beijinglu Commercial Street, Zhongshan Wulu Road and Hui Fulu Road, old-fashioned shops of Lingnan architecture are found in heaps. Attached to the second storey from the pavement, numerous pillars were built in front of the stores. Similar building styles are still common in some torn-down areas both in Hong Kong and Taipei.

Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt : Environment and economy in late imperial south China by Robert B. Marks, Donald Worster (Editor) , Alfred W. Crosby (Editor)

 

 

 

Emperor and Ancestor: State and lineage in south China by David Faure

 

 

 

南蠻不蠻——論珠江流域史前文化 by 張鎮洪

 

 

 

南蠻不蠻——論珠江流域史前文化: 珠江是嶺南地區一條最大的河流，它覆蓋了雲南、貴州、廣西、廣東四省區，其中一些支流的源頭可追溯到湖南、江西、福建境内，珠江文化就是指存在於珠江流域的各種文化。本書介紹的是珠江流域史前時期的文化。　　嶺南地區一直都被視爲蠻荒之地。所謂蠻荒意爲與中原地區相比，嶺南地區生産落後，經濟不發達，民風粗野，不够開化等等。其實不然，大量的考古發現表明，早在史前時期，嶺南地區已經存在豐富的文化，在人類起源、農業和家畜飼養起源、原始宗教和藝術的起源等方面都有過輝煌的成就。數十年來，考古資料日益豐富，并且今後還會不斷有更新、更重要的發現。雖然目前還不能説珠江流域史前文化的面貌、珠江流域的史前史已經完全清楚，但我們基本可以斷言：嶺南地區不是蠻荒之地——南蠻不蠻。正因爲史前時期有過燦爛輝煌的文化，珠江流域在各個歷史時期，特别是近、現代歷史上，在中華民族文化的發展中都起着先鋒作用，這正是文化沉澱深厚的表現

 

 

Yue Chinese

Yue (粵語) is a primary branch of the Chinese language comprising a number of dialects spoken in southern China mainly in the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi, Hong Kong and Macau, and in various overseas communities. The English name "Cantonese" often refers specifically to the dialect of Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Macau, which has emerged as the prestige variety of Yue.

The issue of whether Yue should be regarded as a language in its own right or as a dialect of a Chinese language depends on conceptions of what a language is. Like the other primary branches of Chinese, Yue is considered to be a dialect of a single Chinese language for ethnic and cultural reasons, but is also considered a language in its own right because it is mutually unintelligible with other varieties of Chinese.

History of Yue Chinese: Since the pronunciation of all modern varieties of Chinese are different from Old Chinese or Middle Chinese, characters that once rhymed in poetry may no longer do so today. Some linguists agree to some extent that Cantonese is closer to classical Chinese in its pronunciation and some grammar. Many poems that don't rhyme in Mandarin, do so in Cantonese. Cantonese retains a flavour of archaic and ancient Chinese. If protected, it can be used as a fossil to help study ancient Chinese culture.

In the Qin Dynasty Chinese troops moved south and conquered the Baiyue territories, and many Han people began settling in the Lingnan area. This migration led to the Chinese language being spoken in the Lingnan area. After Zhào Tuō was made the Duke of Nanyue by the Qin Dynasty and given authority over the Nanyue region, many Han people entered the area and lived together with the Nanyue population, consequently affecting the livelihood of the Nanyue people as well as stimulating the spread of the Chinese language.

In the Sui Dynasty, North China was in a period of war and discontent, and many people moved southwards to avoid war, forming the first mass migration of Han people into the South. As the population in the Lingnan area dramatically rose, the Chinese language in the south developed significantly. Thus the Lingnan language began to develop more significant differences with central Chinese.

Yue pronunciation and vocabulary are quite similar to the official language of the Tang dynasty. Dialectologists believe that migrants and exiled officials from the heart of the Tang brought their dialect to Guangdong. Remoteness and inefficient transport to Guangdong created an environment in which the language remained largely intact after it arrived.

In the Song Dynasty, the differences between central Chinese and Yue became more significant, and the languages became more independent of one another. This trend continued during the Yuan and Ming dynasties.

In the late Qing, the dynasty had gone through a period of maritime ban under the Hai jin. Guangzhou remained one of the few cities that allowed trading with foreign countries, since the trade chamber of commerce was established there. Therefore, some foreigners learned Cantonese and some Imperial government officials spoke the Cantonese dialect of Yue, making the language very popular in Cantonese-speaking Guangzhou. Also, the European control of Macau and Hong Kong had increased the exposure of Cantonese to the world.

In 1912, shortly after the fall of the Qing dynasty, revolutionary leaders including Sun Yat-sen met to choose a new national language to replace Classical Chinese. Mandarin Putonghua was then a northern dialect spoken by the Manchurian officials. Many perceived it as an 'impure form' of Chinese. Cantonese is said to have lost out by a small margin of the vote to Putonghua, though some historians dispute this.

 

Chinese Language Tree from glossika.com

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Sino-Austronesian

Sino-Austronesian is a proposed language family. Its original version was first presented by Laurent Sagart in the early 1990s. Using reconstructions of the Old Chinese language, Sagart argued that the Austronesian languages were related to the Sinitic languages both lexically and morphologically. Additionally, the Tai-Kadai languages were placed internally within the Austronesian family as a sister branch of Malayo-Polynesian. He also considers the Austro-Asiatic language family to be a likely candidate for inclusion, since if the Austric hypothesis proves to be true, Austro-Asiatic would follow along with the Tai-Kadai branch's inclusion in Sino-Austronesian.

If compared with genetic evidence, the Sino-Austronesian family would correspond to Haplogroup O, a paternally-transmitted human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Laurent Sagart has also shown that his Sino-Austronesian proposal does not contradict genetic studies in any major way.

Related proposals include Austric (Wilhelm Schmidt), Austro-Tai (Paul K. Benedict), and Dené-Caucasian (Sergei Starostin).

 

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent Sagart

The An Settlement of Taiwan With the MP and TK Migrations

[a]: The pre-Austronesians, from NE China, expand southward along the SE China seaboard in the 5th and early 4th millennia BC: they cultivate rice, foxtail millet, exploit marine resources, practice tooth evulsion. [b]: the Nanri and Pingtan islands, from which the top of Mt Xueshan (3884 m., at center of 200-km radius visibility circle) can be seen, are reached. From there one group crosses to Taiwan c. 3500 BC, while [c] the rest continues expanding in a SW direction towards the Pearl River Delta. [1]: location of earliest An (PAnspeaking) settlements on Taiwan. [2]: location of Pituish, [3] location of Enemish, [4] location of Walu-Siwaish, [5] location of Muish, [6] Tai-Kadai migration, [7] Malayo-Polynesian migration, c. 2000 BC.

 

Excerpts: The position of Tai-Kadai: The observant reader will have noticed that Table 4 includes two languages named 'FATK' and 'FAMP'. These acronyms means 'Formosan Ancestor of Tai-Kadai' and 'Formosan Ancestor of Malayo-Polynesian' respectively. With respect to the former, the claim is being made that, contrary to common sense, the Tai-Kadai languages are descended from an East Formosan language: in effect, that they are a branch of Austronesian, and specifically, a subgroup of Muic.

The modern Tai-Kadai languages are spoken in parts of south China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma and Assam. Ostapirat (2000)21 distinguishes three branches: Hlai in Hainan, and on the mainland Kam-Tai and Kra, but in a more recent paper (in press), he suggests a different classification, with a northern branch (Kra and Kam-Sui) and a southern branch (Hlai and Tai). The Tai-Kadai languages outside of south-east China and adjacent areas of Vietnam are all within the Tai subgroup, and are very homogeneous. This is due to the historically well-attested expansion of Tai speakers in the late first and early second millennia AD. The area of highest diversity is in the northeast part of the Tai-Kadai domain: in Hainan Island, in northern Vietnam, and in the Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Guizhou. This is presumably where the TK homeland was located (although some of the original diversity must have been lost to Chinese in Guangdong province)....

Excerpt: I have argued elsewhere (Sagart, in press, b) that the pre-Austronesians spoke a language related to Sino-Tibetan, and that they reached Taiwan from a location in NE China where millet and rice were cultivated, and where ritual evulsion of the upper lateral incisors in boys and girls was practiced. The eastern China seaboard region north of the Yangzi estuary, from north Jiangsu to north Shandong, is the one area in East Asia where the distribution of these three traits overlaps in the period before the arrival of the Austronesians in Taiwan: thus both rice and millet were cultivated in Xihe in north Shandong (Wright 2004) c. 8000 BP and in Longqiuzhuang in the lower Huai basin c. 7000-5000 BP. Tooth evulsion is attested from 6500 BP on in Shandong and north Jiangsu (Han and Nakahashi 1996). We may surmise that before they reached Taiwan, the pre-Austronesians were expanding southward along the coastal plains of central-eastern China in Jiangsu, Zhejiang and north Fujian. We can expect that archaeological sites with rice, Setaria, tooth evulsion, and a technology intermediate between the Dawenkou culture of north-east China and Ta-Pen-K'eng of Taiwan will eventually appear there.

If this scenario is correct, it is likely that the passage to Taiwan did not exhaust the pre-An population of the Fujian coast. More likely, this population continued expanding along the coast in a south-westerly direction towards the Pearl River delta, even after a group of them had crossed to Taiwan. Their archaeological traces SW of Fujian are perhaps seen in the Pearl river delta, although direct evidence of agriculture there has so far not appeared; Hedang in the Pearl River delta, with tooth evulsion (Higham 1996:84), c. 3000-2000 BC, may be one such site. In Taiwan, Tsang (in press) describes the newly excavated site of Nan-kuan-li near Tainan in south-west Taiwan, where a team led by him recently discovered a neolithic culture having rice, millet, and practicing ritual tooth ablation around 5000-4500 BP. In the same paper he argues that the Ta-Pen-K'eng culture, as seen in Nan-kuan-li near Tainan, "has close affinities with the Neolithic cultures of Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta". I disagree with Tsang when he concludes that "The Pearl River Delta of Kuangtung is mostprobably the source area of the Tapenkeng Culture in Taiwan". I think it more likely that both cultures are descended from a common precursor on the Fujian coast. Pearl River delta sites having affinities to Taiwan TPK like Hedang are also probably too early and too far east to be ancestral to the Tai-Kadai-speaking cultures.

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Cantonese People

Cantonese people (廣東人) broadly speaking, are persons originating from the present-day Guangdong province in southern China. A narrower definition of Guangdongren based on a sociolinguistics and cultural perspectives excludes groups that do not speak Cantonese (Yue) as a primary language and speak other languages native to Guangdong, such as Hakka, Teochiu (a variant of the Min Nan group). However, this sociolinguistic and cultural definition will often also include native speakers of Cantonese in nearby Hong Kong and Macao, which were traditionally part of Guangdong prior to European colonisation, and eastern and southern Guangxi, parts of which were part of Guangdong prior to administrative reforms made by the People's Republic of China. The term "Cantonese people" would then be synonymous with the Punti subethnic group, and is sometimes known as Guangfuren (廣府人) for this narrower definition.

Cantonese is one of the major divisions of spoken Chinese with 110 million speakers. In the native areas of Guangdong and Guangxi, many closely related varieties exist, and linguists collectively refer to these as the Cantonese (or Yue) group.

Due to its political and economic status of being outside the direct control of the PRC, Hong Kong has been an active (and primary) producer of Cantonese language entertainment. Cantopop, Cantonese language pop music, enjoys a multinational fanbase, and the major center of the Cantonese music industry is in Hong Kong. Well-known Cantopop artistes include Andy Lau, Jacky Cheung, Leon Lai, Faye Wong, Sammi Cheng, and Coco Lee. Many of these well known stars are Hakkas, and from the families of other internal Chinese immigrants. Hong Kong's Cantonese-language cinema is a thriving industry that enjoys international fame. One of the world's largest motion picture industries, recent films such as Kung Fu Hustle and Infernal Affairs have generated acclaim worldwide.

 

 

Teochew People

The Teochew (潮州人) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who primarily live in coastal eastern Guangdong in China, and represent one of the three major ethnic groups in the province. The Teochew diaspora can be found almost anywhere in the world, especially Southeast Asia, North America, Australasia and France. The diaspora, at least estimated, contains over 10 million people, which is as much as the population of Chaoshan itself. They speak a language closely related to Hokkien, and their Teochew cuisine is distinctive. Their ancestors are generally believed to have had to move to present-day Chaoshan in order to escape from a series of civil wars at the time from Central China during the Jin Dynasty.

History of the Teochew People: Historically, these people were called Helao or Fulao, as they came mostly from Henan and Shanxi via Fujian, with well-maintained language and customs from north-central China. As was recorded in pedigrees and ancient inscriptions, these people who had originally migrated to southern Fujian, especially from Quanzhou (泉州) and Putian (莆田), made settlements toward Chaoshan in batches and soon spread all over the Chaoshan area. Geographic isolation and difficulty in traveling in the past made the Helao or Fulao become a relatively closed population. Recently, studies of genetic analysis supported that although all Han Chinese are indeed related and share a common root, the Teochew had closest links with the Minnan area of Fujian province and those from the Taihang Mountain (太行山) range of north-central China.

 

 

Hakka People

The Hakka (客家人) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who live predominantly in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian in China. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from Northern China or Central China centuries ago. It is still a contested issue where the Hakka originated. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various nations throughout the world. The Hakka have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

Migrations and Group Identification: The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).

One theory of the Hakka people's origins suggests they could be related to the Xiongnu nomadic people, who had a considerable, sometimes dominating presence in northern China from the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220) period to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589), merging and assimilating within the general Han populace. However, the more commonly held view is the Hakka are a subgroup of the Han Chinese. Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and continued invasion by foreign forces since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty in the 10th century and during the end of the Northern Song Dynasty in 1125 which saw a massive flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital of Bianliang. A further southward migration may have continued as then Mongols defeated the Jurchen Jin Dynasty and proceeded to take down the Southern Song, establishing the Yuan Dynasty in 1271. It's unclear the precise movements of the Hakka people when the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Yuan in the 14th century, and subsequently fell to the Manchus who formed the Qing Dynasty in 16th century.

During the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地, "original land") of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl River Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different people speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakkas.

The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of that area would be of Beijing or Hebei people.

The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.

Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture from the surrounding population, the Hakkas are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous people, and between the She and Hakka.

However, according to the recent 2009 studies made by American Journal of Human Genetics, it was found that comparing with other Southern Hans, Hakka's gene are slightly tilted towards Northern Hans. Nevertheless, the study has shown a strong common genetic relationship between all Han Chinese with only 0.3％ difference.

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.

 

 

Yao

The Yao nationality (瑤族; Vietnamese: người Dao) is a government classification for various minorities in China. They form one of the 55 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, where they reside in the mountainous terrain of the southwest and south. They also form one of the 54 ethnic groups officially recognized by Vietnam. In the last census, they numbered 2,637,421 in China, and roughly 470,000 in Vietnam.

Early History: Origins of the Yao can be traced back 2000 years ago starting in South China.

Emigration: From the 15th to 19th century, the Yao migrated into Thailand, Vietnam and the highlands of Laos. The migration was agitated by the opium trade and as the result of revolts in Southern China during this period.

Laotian Civil War: During the Laotian Civil War, Yao tribes of Laos had a good relationship with U.S. forces and were dubbed to be an “efficient friendly force.” This relationship caused the Laotian government to target Yao tribal groups for revenge once the war was over. This triggered further immigration into Thailand, where the tribes would be put into camps along the Thailand-Laos border.

Immigration to the United States: After obtaining refugee status from the Thai government and with the help of the United Nations, many Yao people were able to obtain sponsorship into the United States (although many remain in Thailand, mostly in impoverished upland settlements in Northern Thailand). Most of the Yao who have immigrated to the United States have settled along the Western part of the U.S., mainly in Northern California such as Oakland, Oroville, Sacramento, but also in parts of Oregon and the state of Washington. See Mien American for those identified as Mien.

Culture: The typical houses of the Yao are rectangular and they have structures made of wood and bamboo. Normally it has three rooms: a room and two dormitories in the lateral side. Each one of these rooms has a small oven to cook.

The men and the women cover their heads with a black or red scarf. Some women substitute this scarf by a turban that can adopt different forms.

The traditional suit of the women is of bright colors. They also decorate their shirts with decorations made out of silver.

In Vietnam, Yao people celebrate many exciting and meaningful festivals such as Nhơn chung lỉnh (literally: Red rice, Green rice"), Nhiang chằm đao (literally: Jumping Festival)...

Groups and Languages

There are several distinct groups within the Yao nationality, and they speak several different languages, from different language families:

• Miao-Yao languages
  • The Mien speak Mienic languages (勉語) , including:
    • Mian-Jin languages
      • Iu Mien, 818,685 speakers (383,000 in China, 350,000 in Vietnam, 40,000 in Thailand, 20,250 in Laos, 70,000 in the United States)
      • Kim Mun (also known as Lanten), more than 300,000 Yao people
      • Biao Mon, 20,000 speakers
    • Dzao Min, 60,000 speakers
    • Biao-Jiao Mien, 43,000 speakers
  • Miao or Hmong languages
    • Bunu, 258,000 speakers
    • Wunai Bunu, 18,442 speakers.
    • Younuo Bunu, 9,716 speakers
    • Jiongnai Bunu, 1,078 speakers also known as the 'Flowery Blue Yao'
    • Some linguists group the above languages - with a total of more than 287,000 speakers - together as dialects of a single Bunu language (Bùnǔyǔ 布努语).
• Kradai languages
  • Lakkia (Lājiāyǔ 拉珈語/拉珈语), 12,000 speakers
• Chinese
  • about 500,000 Yao speak Chinese dialects

In addition to China, populations of Yao also live in Northern Vietnam (where they are called Dao), Northern Laos, and Burma. There are around 60,000 Yao in Northern Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. The lowland-living Lanten of Laos, who speak Kim Mun, and the highland-living Iu Mien of Laos are two different Yao groups. There are also many Yao living in the United States, mainly refugees from the highlands of Laos who speak the Iu Mien language. The Iu Mien do not call themselves "Yao". Not all "Yao" are Iu Mien.

A group of 61,000 people on the island of Hainan speak the Yao language Kim Mun, but see themselves as Miao (Hmong), and they are also officially categorized as Miao by the Chinese Government. 139,000 speakers of Kim Mun live in other parts of China (Yunnan and Guangxi), and 174,500 live in Laos and Vietnam.

The Bunu call themselves Nuox [no13], Buod nuox [po43 no13], Dungb nuox [tuŋ33 no13] or according to their official name Yaof zuf [ʑau21 su21]. Only 258,000 of the 439,000 people categorised as Bunu in the 1982 census speak Bunu; 100,000 speak Zhuang, and 181,000 speak Chinese and Bouyei.

Other Chinas: The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging by Ralph A.Litzinger

 

 

 

A History of Daoism and the Yao People of South China by Eli Alberts

 

 

 

 

 

Miao

The Miao (苗族) are a linguistically and culturally related group of people recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China as one of the 55 official minority groups. Miao is a Chinese term and does not reflect the self-designations of the component sub-groups, which include (with some variant spellings) Hmong/Mong, Hmu, A Hmao,and Kho (Qho) Xiong. The Miao live primarily in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. Some members of the Miao sub-groups, most notably Hmong/Mong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (northern Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand).

Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples often with the connotation of "barbarian." This former meaning has not kept members of the modern nationality from self-identifying as Miao.

Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classified them according to the most characteristic colour of the women's clothes. The list below contains the self-designations, the colour designations and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China:

• Ghao Xong; Red Miao; west Hunan.
• Hmu, Gha Ne (Ka Nao); Black Miao; southeast Guizhou.
• A Hmao; Big Flowery Miao; northwest Guizhou and northeast Yunnan.
• Hmong, White Miao, Mong, Green (Blue) Miao, Small Flowery Miao; south Sichuan, west Guizhou and south Yunnan.

According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of Miao sub-groups live in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar due to migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam wars between 1949 and 1975, many Hmong/Mong people now live in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia. Altogether there are approximately 8 million speakers of Miao languages. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong/Mong-Mien (Miao-Yao) language family.

Archaeological Discoveries: Many Miao scholars believe the Dawenkou Culture to be Miao. They cite the pottery designs found in the tombs as examples. The designs are very similar to present day Miao embroideries. Combine this with the presence of Miao in Shangdong suggests the Miao's origin is not the south but the mouth of the Yellow River. It would also support the Miao's claim to the Shang Dynasty since Shangdong is part of Shang.

Lady Dai found in Tomb no. 1 at Mawangdui is believed by many Miao as a Miao woman. They cite the T-shaped banners draped over her coffin as an example of Miao burial practices and beliefs. This dispel the belief that the sinicization of the Miao was by force or even sinicized during the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang is a general under Xiang Yu meaning he commanded Miao troops and they are his base of power. When the dispute with Xiang Yu broke out Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo and Fan Kuai saved Liu Bang's life. This meant Liu Bang's support among the Miao was strong. The Han-Chu contention was not about a struggle between two groups of people but between two individuals. This explains why Miao beliefs and culture flourished during the Western Han. It would also mean that the Han nationality began when the Miao and Huaxia came together as one. The present day Miao may be the remnant of those who fled when Qin conquered Chu. They left before peace came and never returned. It would explain why Chu is acknowledged by the Miao as a Miao Kingdom but not Han given Liu Bang's base of power was former Chu in the South.

* Song: 我是苗家人 on YouTube

Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics by Louisa Schein

 

 

 

Miao Textiles from China (Fabric Folios) by Gina Corrigan

 

 

 

 

Li People

Photo from Hainan National Minority Traditional Culture

The Li (黎) or Hlai are a minority Chinese ethnic group, sometimes colloquially known as "Sai" or "Say." They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. 94% of the Li live off the southern coast of mainland China on Hainan, where they are the largest minority ethnic group. As well as Hainan, the Li people are also found in some islands in the South China Sea area that are considered Filipino territory. Native islanders of the Luzon Sea are included under the "Li" ethnic group in China.

During the Sui Dynasty they were known by the name Liliao, and presently they refer to themselves as the Hlai people. The Li suffered heavily under the Japanese occupation, and they are held in high esteem by the Beijing government because they fought on the side of the CPC against Chinese Nationalist rule during the Chinese Civil War.

The Li people can generally understand or speak Hainanese and Mandarin. Because many Li in Hainan relocate to Cantonese-speaking areas in southern mainland China near Hainan (such as Guangzhou and HK), it is common for Li people to learn and speak Cantonese.

The Li play a traditional wind instrument called kǒuxiāo (口箫), and another called lìlāluó (利拉罗).

The Hlai languages are a primary branch of the Kradai language family spoken on the island of Hainan. They include Hlai proper, with 600,000 speakers, its divergent 'dialect' Kamau, with 60,000, and Cun, which has 80,000 speakers.

 

 

Zhuang

The Zhuang (壯族) are an ethnic group of people who mostly live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in southern China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. Their population, estimated at 18 million people, puts them second only to the Han Chinese and makes the Zhuang the largest minority in China. The name of the Zhuang minority used to be written 獞. However, the character also refers to a variety of wild dogs, so it was considered an ethnic slur. In 1949, the "animal" radical was replaced by the "human" radical, and the character became 僮. Eventually, the character was replaced with 壮, a character already in existence meaning "sturdy" or "strong".

The Zhuang live mostly in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in southern China. Some also live in the Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou and Hunan provinces.

The Zhuang language (壮语) is used by the Zhuang people in the People's Republic of China. Most speakers live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Zhuang, which belongs to the Tai language group, is an official language in that region. Standardized Zhuang is based on the dialect of Wuming County (武鸣县). Buyei, considered a separate language in China, is actually just a slightly different standard form of Zhuang, used across the province border in Guizhou. There is a dialect continuum between Zhuang and Buyei. Zhuang is a tonal language. It has six tones.

The Tai languages are a subgroup of the Tai-Kadai language family. The Tai languages include the most widely spoken of the Tai-Kadai languages, including Thai, the national language of Thailand, Lao or Laotian, the national language of Laos, Myanmar's Shan language, and Zhuang, a major language of southern China.

Prehistory: The Zhuang are of Tai origin, a people who migrated south from central China roughly 5000 years ago. The Zhuang settled in what is now Guangxi while other Tai peoples moved to Yunnan. It is suggested the Tai peoples migrated for food purposes, as the culture developed a unique irrigation system which was useful for growing rice. As the soil was unsuitable for this purpose in Central China, the Tai sought out more fertile plains. However, it is highly probable that struggles with emerging Chinese states that rapidly gained power with Mesolithic (Bronze Age) weapons had something to do with this. Long struggles with China to avoid destruction (as they were "barbarians") led Tais around 1100 AD to migrate south from Southern China to create the Lao, Thai and Shan peoples of Indochina, and even as far away as Assam, India.

The Dynasties: The Zhuang did not record their history until the Eastern Zhou dynasty (475-221 BC) of China. The Chinese referred to the area as Bai-Yue 百越/百粵 (the Hundred Yue - referring to the aborigines of southern China). Eastern Guangxi was conquered by the Han people under the Qin Dynasty in 214 BC. The Hans, to bring the area firmly in their control, built the Ling Canal to link the Xiang and Lijiang rivers and form a North-South waterway.

An independent state known as Nan Yue (Southern Yue, or Vietnam) around Canton was created by General Zhao Tuo when the Qin Dynasty collapsed. This Kingdom was supported by the Zhuang until its collapse in 111 BC. The Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD) thought the Zhuang culture unproductive, so they reduced local authority and consolidated their authority with Military posts at Guilin, Wuzhou, and Yulin.

In 42 AD, the Trung Sisters uprising was quelled by an army under General Ma Yuan, who sought not only victory on the battlefield but felt true concern for the Zhuang people. He reorganized the Zhuang Local Authority, improved public works, dug canals and reclaimed land to increase production. His work brought the Zhuang into a more modern condition, and temples in his honor can still be seen to this day.

An influx of immigrant Yao people from Hunan after the collapse of the Han Dynasty caused the region to become unstable as the Yao showed hostility to assimilation. The Guiping area of Guangxi, where the Yao settled, would become a hotbed of revolution against Han rule, causing the Zhuang people to suffer terribly, despite their passive stance on assimilation.

Under the Tang Dynasty Guangxi became part of Ling-nan Tao (large province) with present day Hainan and Guangdong. The noted scholar Liu Zongyuan was prefectural administrator at Liuzhou. Irked by Chinese expansion, however, the Zhuang moved to support the Tai kingdom of Nanchao in Yunnan. Guangxi was then divided into an area of Zhuang ascendancy west of Nanning and an area of Han ascendancy east of Nanning.

After the collapse of the Tang a new Chinese kingdom known as Nan Han (Southern Han), based in Guangdong, gained minimal control over the Zhuang, but the Nan Han Kingdom was plagued by instability and it was annexed by the Song Dynasty of China in 971. The Nan Han rule of the Zhuang was marked by minimal interference in Zhuang affairs by the Chinese rulers.

The Song developed a new way of dealing with the Zhuang that was a combination of force and appeasement, a policy that neither satisfied the aspirations of the Zhuang nor ended the savage warfare brought to the region by the Yao against the Chinese. In 1052 a Zhuang leader, Nong Zhigao, led a revolt and set up an independent kingdom in the Southwest. The revolt was crushed, and the Song rule became more brutal, causing the region to spasm in revolt against the Chinese.

After the Yuan Dynasty liquidated the Song, they spent several years deciding what to do with the Zhuang. Weary of the bad relationship previous Chinese rulers had with the region, they decided to make it a full province of China rather than let it remain an occupied territory. This only caused greater stress as the Zhuang and Yao felt alienated, and hated direct rule from the Chinese government. Further complicating Zhuang aspirations, another aboriginal people, the Miao, left Guizhou and Hunan for the Zhuang lands.

The area continued to be unruly, forcing the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) to impose an underhanded way of dealing with it: the Ming would give tribal leaders of the Zhuang an army to attack the Yao. Once the Yao were devastated, the Ming used the armies they had given the Zhuang leaders to kill the Zhuang leaders, and force a leaderless Zhuang society under their heavy handed rule. This resulted in perhaps the bloodiest period of history in a relatively calm region. At the Battle of Rattan Gorge, in 1465, 20,000 deaths were reported. The Ming policy failed, but the larger cities in the region did prosper under Ming economic reform.

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) let the region remain in chaos until 1726 when they imposed direct rule as the Yuan had. This was also a failed venture as a Yao revolution took place in 1831. Twenty years later, in 1850, the same area witnessed the Taiping Rebellion break out. The execution of a French missionary led to the Second Opium war in 1858. The Franco-Chinese War of 1885 put Vietnam under French supremacy and opened up the area to foreign encroachment. All of this caused a constant economic depression through the nineteenth century.

Modern Times: Together with neighboring Guangdong, Guangxi became an area of Sun Yat-sen (孫逸仙)'s Nationalist (國民黨) revolution. With the fall of the Qing, the Zhuang sent representatives to the central government to campaign for Guangxi autonomy, but when years of protocol failed, the "Guangxi Clique" turned to open revolt in 1927. Maintaining a defiant self-rule stance for two years, the Zhuang leaders of Li Tsung-jen and Li Chi-shen modernized Guangxi, but Chiang Kai-shek ruthlessly crushed their revolt in 1929. Despite the Clique's failure, Chiang could not put Guangxi under direct provincial rule, and it remained unruly until 1950. The Kuomintang's suppression of Guangxi led to widespread support of Communism.

During World War II Guangxi was a major target of Japanese attacks, as they invaded the coast in 1939. The famous patriotic newspaper National Salvation Daily was printed at Guilin. In 1944, the Japanese launched a major offensive to take the western half of Guangxi, but with relentless Zhuang guerrillas and a Chinese counterattack, the Japanese were routed.

 

 

Che People

Che people (輋民 or 輋族) is a branch of Yao people found in the Guangdong and Jiangxi provinces of China. They are also known as She people outside of these areas.

History: Che people are the earliest known settlers in Guangdong. They originally settled along the shallow shore for easier fishing during the Neolithic era. After an influx of Yue people moved south during the Warring States Period in northern China, there was serious competition for resources between the two peoples.

From the time of the Qin dynasty, waves of migrants from northern China had a serious impact on the Che people. Because they had superior tools and technology, the migrants were able to occupy better land for farming. Some Che people were forced to relocate into the hilly areas in the Jiangxi and Fujian provinces.

Following relocation, the Che people farmed on hillsides. After burning the grass on the slope, rice seeds were cast on the burnt grasses and harvested following a growth season. Some Che people also participated in salt production and trade. Salt was obtained through the evaporation of pools of salt water.

There were many conflicts between Han Chinese and the Che people. Che salt producers on Lantau Island in Hong Kong had attacked the city of Canton in a revolt during the Song dynasty.

Language: Che people speak the Hmong-Mien languages. With the assimilation of other ethnic groups Che people have gradually lost their mother tongue and now speak other languages such as Hakka.

Place Names: After thousands of years of conflict and assimilation with the Han Chinese and Yue peoples, the specific identity of the Che people in coastal Guangdong has virtually disappeared. However, evidence can be found in place names:

 

 

She

Photo from Cultural China

The She (畲) people are a Chinese ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They are the largest minority in Fujian province. They are also present in the provinces of Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi and Guangdong.

Language: The She language is a Hmong-Mien language. Most of the She today speak Chinese dialects, like Hakka. Those who retain their own language - approximately 1,200 individuals in Guangdong province - call themselves Ho Ne "mountain people" (活聂).

 

Guangdong Province

Heyuan Municipality

Zhangxi She-nation Ethnic Township (漳溪畲族乡) in Dongyuan County

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Genetic Studies

 

* Phylogenetic Relationship of the Populations Within and Around Japan Using 105 Short Tandem Repeat Polymorphic Loci by Shi-Lin Li, et al.

A Neighbor-joining (NJ) Tree Showing the Relationships of Ten Human Populations Examined in the Present Study on the Basis of DA Distances Calculated from the Allele Frequencies at 105 Tetranucleotide STR Loci

 

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot of Ten Human Populations Analyzed in the Present Study, Based on DA Genetic Distances Calculated from 105 Autosomal Tetranucleotide STR Loci

 

 

* Genomic Dissection of Population Substructure of Han Chinese and Its Implication in Association Studies by Shuhua Xu, et al.

Abstract: To date, most genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and studies of fine-scale population structure have been conducted primarily on Europeans. Han Chinese, the largest ethnic group in the world, composing 20% of the entire global human population, is largely underrepresented in such studies. A well-recognized challenge is the fact that population structure can cause spurious associations inGWAS. In this study, we examined population substructures in a diverse set of over 1700 Han Chinese samples collected from 26 regions across China, each genotyped at ~160K single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Our results showed that the Han Chinese population is intricately substructured, with the main observed clusters corresponding roughly to northern Han, central Han, and southern Han. However, simulated case-control studies showed that genetic differentiation among these clusters, although very small (FST ¼ 0.0002 ~0.0009), is sufficient to lead to an inflated rate of false-positive results even when the sample size is moderate. The top two SNPs with the greatest frequency differences between the northern Han and southern Han clusters (FST > 0.06) were found in the FADS2 gene, which associates with the fatty acid composition in phospholipids, and in the HLA complex P5 gene (HCP5), which associates with HIV infection, psoriasis, and psoriatic arthritis. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) showed that most differentiated genes among clusters are involved in cardiac arteriopathy (p < 10101). These signals indicating significant differences among Han Chinese subpopulations should be carefully explained in case they are also detected in association studies, especially when sample sources are diverse.

 

Analysis of the First Two Principal Components of Han Chinese individuals (excluding all non-Han Chinese samples)

 

Principal Components Analysis of Han Chinese Individuals

 

Geographical Locations of Three C-Han Populations

 

 

* Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation by Jieming Chen, et al.

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The cluster and stratification of the samples from the ten provinces of China, showing an evident north-south genetic differentiation.)

 

Population Stratification of the Han Chinese

(The three dialect groups from the Guangdong province were shown against all of the Han Chinese samples from the ten provinces. There was stratification among the three dialect groups, along the same north-south trend observed for the overall Han Chinese.)

 

 

* Genetic Distances Between Chinese Populations Ccalculated on Gene Frequencies of 38 Loci by DU Ruofu, et al.

Phylogenic Tree of Han Subpopulations in 30 Provinces, Cities and Autonomous Regions

(Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan)

 

Phylogenic Tree of 10 Han Subpopulations and 14 Ethnic Minorities

(Han GD, Han GX, Zhuang, Yao, Miao, Dong, Li)

Han subpopulations: GS, Gansu; HLJ, Heilongjiang; JL, Jilin; NM, Inner Mongolia; ShX, Shaanxi; GD, Guangdong; GX, Guangxi; GZ Guizhou; H ~ N , Hunan; SC, Sichuan.

 

 

* Genetic Relationship of Populations in China by J. Y. Chu, et al.

Chinese Populations Sampled in the Current Study

 

Phylogenies Constructed by Using the Neighbor-joining Method Based on 30 Microsatellites

(Han US, Japanese)

 

Phylogenies Constructed by Using the Neighbor-joining Method Based on 15 Microsatellites

(Ami, Han-US)

 

 

* Tracing the Legacy of the Early Hainan Islandersa Perspective from Mitochondrial DNA by Min-Sheng Peng, et al.

Principle Components Analysis (PCA) of Populations in Southern China and Vietnam

 

 

* Genetic Diversity of Two Haploid Markers in the Udegey Population from Southeastern Siberia by HJ Jin, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on (A) FST Distances of mtDNA Haplogroups

Closed diamonds: northeast Asians, Open squares: southeast Asians, Closed squares: south Siberians, Triangles: northeast Siberians, Closed circle: Udegey1, Open circles: southeast Siberians, Asterisk: Europeans.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on FST Distances of mtDNA HVS-I Sequences

 

 

* Polymorphic Distribution of Y-chromosome Haplotype and Mitochondrial DNA in the Bouyei People in China by Li Yong-nian, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in China and World Populations

 

 

* A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

 

 

* Genetic History of Southeast Asian Populations as Revealed by Ancient and Modern Human Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by P. Lertrit, et al.

Populations Selected for Genetic Comparison

 

Unrooted NJ Tree of 22 Selected Populations Based on Net Genetic Distances

 

PC Map of 22 Selected Populations Based on Net Genetic Distances

 

Haplogroup Frequencies

 

 

* Genetic Relationships of Ethnic Minorities in Southwest China Revealed by Microsatellite Markers by Hongbin Lin, et al.

Principal Component Analysis with Normalized Allele Frequencies for the Full-loci Dataset

 

 

* The ADH1B Arg47His Polymorphism in East Asian Populations and Expansion of Rice Domestication in History by Yi Peng, et al.

The Distribution of the ADH1B*47His Allele and the Sites of Early Rice Relics

 

The Distribution of the ADH1B*47His Allele in the 38 East Asian Populations

 

 

* Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation by Jieming Chen, et al.

Abstract: Population stratification is a potential problem for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), confounding results and causing spurious associations. Hence, understanding how allele frequencies vary across geographic regions or among subpopulations is an important prelude to analyzing GWAS data. Using over 350,000 genome-wide autosomal SNPs in over 6000 Han Chinese samples from ten provinces of China, our study revealed a one-dimensional north-south population structure and a close correlation between geography and the genetic structure of the Han Chinese. The north-south population structure is consistent with the historical migration pattern of the Han Chinese population. Metropolitan cities in China were, however, more diffused outliers, probably because of the impact of modern migration of peoples. At a very local scale within the Guangdong province, we observed evidence of population structure among dialect groups, probably on account of endogamy within these dialects. Via simulation, we show that empirical levels of population structure observed across modern China can cause spurious associations in GWAS if not properly handled. In the Han Chinese, geographic matching is a good proxy for genetic matching, particularly in validation and candidate-gene studies in which population stratification cannot be directly accessed and accounted for because of the lack of genome-wide data, with the exception of the metropolitan cities, where geographical location is no longer a good indicator of ancestral origin. Our findings are important for designing GWAS in the Chinese population, an activity that is expected to intensify greatly in the near future.

 

 

* Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Guangdong Han Chinese by Feng Chen, et al.

Abstract: Previous investigations on Chinese mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation revealed that the matrilineal gene pool of southern Han Chinese is rather complex, with much higher genetic diversity and more basal/ancient lineages than the northern Hans. The extreme case is Guangdong Han populations, among which pronounced (matrilineal) differentiation has been observed, indicative of complex demography of the region. To get more insights into the maternal makeup of southern Han Chinese, mtDNA variation of a total of 106 individuals sampled from Dongguan, Guangdong Province, China, was analyzed in this study. With the aid of the information from control-region hypervariable segments I and II (HVS-I and -II) as well as some necessary coding-region segments, the phylogenetic status of all mtDNAs under examination were determined according to the reconstructed East Asian mtDNA tree. In this way, the mtDNAs have been classified into various haplogroups or sub-haplogroups. The southern-prevalent haplogroups, such as R9 (20.8%), B (17.9%), M7b (14.2%), show relatively high distribution frequencies in Dongguan Hans; whereas the frequencies of Northern-prevalent haplogroups (with the exception of D) are quite low: C (1.9%), G2 (1.9%) and Z (1.9%), indicating the southern-origin of Dongguan Hans.

 

 

* Genetic Polymorphisms of 15 STR Loci in Chinese Han population living in Xi'an city of Shaanxi Province by Y.M. Wu, et al.

Abstract: Fifteen autosomal STRs loci were analyzed from a population sample of 446 unrelated healthy individuals of Chinese Han population residing in Xi'an city of Shaanxi Province using a multiplex PCR system. We report allele frequencies distribution and statistical parameters for all STR loci, D8S1179, D21S11, D7S820, CSF1PO, D3S1358, TH01, D13S317, D16S539, D2S1338, D19S433, vWA, TPOX, D18S51, D5S818 and FGA. The observed genotype frequencies and expected of genotype frequencies were evaluated by chi(2)-test and the Fisher exact tests. Chi-Square test showed all STR loci were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p<0.05). Our studied population data were compared with the previously published population data of other ethnics or areas. After comparing, significant differences were found between Chinese Han population in Xi'an and Korean, Tibetan, Uigur, Chinese Han population in Guangdong Province, Hui population, Chinese Salar, Dongxiang and Tu ethnic minority living in Qinghai Province of China at some loci. The forensic parameters from the data showed high values. The data in the present study can be used greatly for routine forensic application in the region of Xi'an city.

 

 

* STR Polymorphisms of the Henan Population and Investigation of the Central Plains Han Origin of Chaoshanese by Li-Na Xu, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree constructed from Nei’s genetic distance based on the allelic frequencies of CODIS STR loci in 25 Chinese Han populations

 

 

* Genetic Evidence Supports Demic Diffusion of Han Culture by Bo Wen, et al.

 

 

* Genetic Data Obtained for Two Chinese Han Populations with a Quadruplex Fluorescent STR Typing System (HUMVWA, HUMTH01, D21S11 and HPRT) by Feng-Xia Xiao1, et al.

Abstract:  DNA typing of four tetrameric repeat loci (HUMVWA, HUMTH01, D21S11 and HPRT) was carried out in a Chinese Han population from Shanghai (East China) and one from Guangzhou (South-East China) using a quadruplex PCR amplification and detection of the fluorescent-labeled alleles on the ALF DNA sequencer. All loci were in accordance with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium except for D21S11 in the Guangzhou population. A test for population differentiation showed no statistical difference in the allele frequency distribution between the two populations. Comparison of the allele frequency data with other Chinese Han populations from North and South-West China for the STR loci HUMVWA and HUMTH01 revealed heterogeneity between Northern Chinese Han and Southern Chinese Han, which is in accordance with previous studies on the basis of protein markers.

 

 

* The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers by Han-Jun Jin, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) Plot Based on FST Distances of mtDNA HVS-I Sequences

 

 

* Phylogeographic Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA in Han Chinese by Yong-Gang Yao, et al.

Abstract: To characterize the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in Han Chinese from several provinces of China, we have sequenced the two hypervariable segments of the control region and the segment spanning nucleotide positions 10171–10659 of the coding region, and we have identified a number of specific coding-region mutations by direct sequencing or restriction-fragment–length–polymorphism tests. This allows us to define new haplogroups (clades of the mtDNA phylogeny) and to dissect the Han mtDNA pool on a phylogenetic basis, which is a prerequisite for any fine-grained phylogeographic analysis, the interpretation of ancient mtDNA, or future complete mtDNA sequencing efforts. Some of the haplogroups under study differ considerably in frequencies across different provinces. The southernmost provinces show more pronounced contrasts in their regional Han mtDNA pools than the central and northern provinces. These and other features of the geographical distribution of the mtDNA haplogroups observed in the Han Chinese make an initial Paleolithic colonization from south to north plausible but would suggest subsequent migration events in China that mainly proceeded from north to south and east to west. Lumping together all regional Han mtDNA pools into one fictive general mtDNA pool or choosing one or two regional Han populations to represent all Han Chinese is inappropriate for prehistoric considerations as well as for forensic purposes or medical disease studies.

PC Map of the mtDNA Data of 13 Regional Han Samples

 

 

* Polymorphism of HLA-DRB1 in Han Population in Yunnan and Comparison with 9 Han Populations by SB Xu, et al.

Abstract: 129 samples of Han population in Yunnan province were detected by polymerase chain reaction and microtitre plate hybridization (PCR-MPH). The samples of DR*15 subgroup being detected by PCR-MPH were further analyzed by Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism (SSCP). By first polymerase chain reaction and microtitre plate hybridization (PCR-MPH), all of the 129 samples were divided into the following subgroups, viz. DR*01, DR*03 ,DR*04, DR*0701, DR*08, DR*09012, DR*1001, DR*11, DR*12, DR*13, DR*14, DR*15, DR*1602 and DR*1604. The samples of DR*04, DR*08/12, DR*03/11/13/14 were further detected by second PCR-MPH and the ones of DR*15 by SSCP. 36 kinds of alleles on HLA-DRB1 were detected in these samples. Among them, DRB1*1501(0.1240), DRB1*09012(0.0969), DRB1*08032(0.0930), DRB1*1202(0.0891), DRB1*1201(0.0814), DRB1 *1401(0.0775), DRB1 *0701(0.0620), are the most frequent. The chi(2) test of HLA-DRB1 alleles was done between Yunnan Han and the other 9 Han populations. In detail, comparing with Yunnan Han on the chi(2) test, the chi(2) values of few alleles in the few Han populations was more than 10, they were Xian Han (DR8,chi(2)=13.9712), Shanghai Han (DR4,chi(2)=10.1632), Guangdong Han (DR9,chi(2)=12.6121) and Nanjing Han (DR4,chi(2)=10.5796). Comparing with 9 Han populations, the genetic distance between Yunnan Han and Liaoning Han was the nearest 0.0541), Guangdong Han was the farthest (0.1851). In the 9 Han populations, the genetic distance between Shanghai Han and Nanjing Han was the nearest (0.0122), and the one between Tianjin Han and Shanxi Han was also nearer (0.0219). Based on above analysis, the conclusion may be deduced that the resource of Yunnan Han may be close to Liaoning Han and it was not a typical southern Han population though Yunnan Han are resident in the South. Some gene flow may be exit between Yunnan Han and the local minorities and made Yunnan Han become a special population.

 

 

* Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Populations by Hiroki Oota, et al.

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Finns - Kirghiz Lowlander - British - Kazakh - Turks - Basques - Sardinian

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Finns - Indian - Ainu - Aboriginal Australian - Anatolia Turks - Borneo

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Korean - Philippines - Uighurs - Changsha - Taiwanese (aborigines) - Vietnamese - Vanuata - Indonesian - PNG

Tw (Taiwan Han Chinese) Ca (Cantonese) - Xi'an - Tottori (Japanese) - Kirghiz Highlander - Mongolian - Ngoebe - Altai of Siberia - Amerind - Argentina - Siberians

 

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia
Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

 

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 15 Populations from Taiwan and
China Based on the Frequencies of GM ± 23 Sub-haplotypes

Solid lines link populations that are undifferentiated at the 5% level according to an exact test of population differentiation. Dotted lines link populations that are undifferentiated at the 5% level according to a permutation test on pairwise Fst’s, but not to the exact test. Final stress = 0.041 (excellent). White circles: Sino-Tibetans; triangles: Austronesians from Taiwan; black circle: Extra-Formosan Austronesians.

 

 

* Genetic Link Between Chaoshan and Other Chinese Han Populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution by Sheng-Ping Hu, et al.

Abstract: The genetic polymorphism of HLA-A and HLA-B loci was investigated in 505 Chaoshanese using PCR-SSP method. Among the HLA-A alleles detected, A*11 (35.64%) was most frequent, followed by A*02 (31.78%). Of 34 HLA-B alleles tested, 30 were observed, in which B*60 (21.68%), B*46 (14.46%), and B*58 (10.69%) were highly predominant. Comparison was made with other nine Chinese Han ethnic groups covering the Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The high frequent alleles found in Chaoshanese were also common in other Chinese groups compared though the frequency levels varied from group to group. The phylogenic tree analysis based on the HLA-A and -B allele frequencies of all the 10 Chinese ethnic groups revealed that Chaoshanese, while clustering in general with the southern China-related Han Chinese, had the highest affinity to the Mainland Minnanese, but separated distinctively from the northern Han Chinese. The study, however, was yet to confirm the hypothesis of the Central Plains Han origin of Chaoshanese. Interestingly, the alleles (B*46, B*38, and B*58) and the related haplotypes (A*02-B*46 and A*33-B*58) that are positively associated with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), a disease prevailing predominantly among southern Chinese, were always at much higher frequencies among southern Chinese than among northern Chinese, whereas A*31 and B*13, the two alleles with highly protective effects for NPC, and the associated haplotype A*30-B*13 were predominantly high in northern Chinese. The different genetic background between northern and southern China may explain, at least partially, the prevalence of NPC among southern Chinese.

 

 

* Tracing the Origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by Mitochondrial DNA Analysis by Wen-Zhi Wang, et al.

Abstract: Hakka and Chaoshanese are two unique Han populations residing in southern China but with northern Han (NH) cultural traditions and linguistic influences. Although most of historical records indicate that both populations migrated from northern China in the last two thousand years, no consensus on their origins has been reached so far. To shed more light on the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese, mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) of 170 Hakka from Meizhou and 102 Chaoshanese from Chaoshan area, Guangdong Province, were analyzed. Our results show that some southern Chinese predominant haplogroups, e.g. B, F, and M7, have relatively high frequencies in both populations. Although median network analyses show that Hakka/Chaoshanese share some haplotypes with NH, interpopulation comparison reveals that both populations show closer affinity with southern Han (SH) populations than with NH. In consideration of previous results from nuclear gene (including Y chromosome) research, it is likely that matrilineal landscapes of both Hakka and Chaoshanese have largely been shaped by the local people during their migration southward and/or later colonization in southern China, and factors such as cultural assimilation, patrilocality, and even sex-bias in the immigrants might have played important roles during the process.

 

Population Analyzed

 

Two-dimensional PC Plot of mtDNA of Han Populations

 

PC Map of Y Chromosome of Han Chinese

 

 

Haplogroup F (mtDNA)

Haplogroup F is centered in Asia and appears in eastern China and Japan. It is not found in the Americas. It is a descendant haplogroup of Haplogroup R.

Fairly common in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Higher frequencies occur in some areas like Nicobar at 50% and Arunachal Pradesh 31% (India), and Shors people from Siberia at 44%. There is also an important frequency in Taiwanese aborigines, Guangdong (China), Maluku (Indonesia), Thailand and Vietnam.

 

 

Southern Mongoloid

Map of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. Genetically Northern Mongoloids are very unrelated to Southern Mongoloids.

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is the most common cancer originating in the nasopharynx, the uppermost region of the pharynx or "throat", where the nasal passages and auditory tubes join the remainder of the upper respiratory tract. NPC differs significantly from other cancers of the head and neck in its occurrence, causes, clinical behavior, and treatment. It is vastly more common in certain regions of East Asia and Africa than elsewhere, with viral, dietary and genetic factors implicated in its causation. It is most common in males.

NPC is uncommon in the United States and most other nations, but is extremely common in southern regions of China, particularly in Guangdong accounting for 18% of all cancers in China. It is sometimes referred to as Cantonese cancer because it occurs in about 25 cases per 100,000 people in this region, 25 times higher than the rest of the world. It is also quite common in Taiwan. This could be due to the South East Asian diet which typically includes consumption of salted vegetables, fish and meat. While NPC is seen primarily in middle-aged persons in Asia, a high proportion of African cases appear in children. The cause of increased risk for NPC in these endemic regions is not entirely clear.

 

 

* Is Nasopharyngeal Cancer Really a "Cantonese Cancer"? by JT Wee, et al.

Abstract: Nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is endemic in Southern China, with Guandong province and Hong Kong reporting some of the highest incidences in the world. The journal Science has called it a "Cantonese cancer". We propose that in fact NPC is a cancer that originated in the Bai Yue ("proto Tai Kadai" or "proto Austronesian" or "proto Zhuang") peoples and was transmitted to the Han Chinese in southern China through intermarriage. However, the work by John Ho raised the profile of NPC, and because of the high incidence of NPC in Hong Kong and Guangzhou, NPC became known as a Cantonese cancer. We searched historical articles, articles cited in PubMed, Google, monographs, books and Internet articles relating to genetics of the peoples with high populations of NPC. The migration history of these various peoples was extensively researched, and where possible, their genetic fingerprint identified to corroborate with historical accounts. Genetic and anthropological evidence suggest there are a lot of similarities between the Bai Yue and the aboriginal peoples of Borneo and Northeast India; between Inuit of Greenland, Austronesian Mayalo Polynesians of Southeast Asia and Polynesians of Oceania, suggesting some common ancestry. Genetic studies also suggest the present Cantonese, Minnans and Hakkas are probably an admixture of northern Han and southern Bai Yue. All these populations have a high incidence of NPC. Very early contact between southern Chinese and peoples of East Africa and Arabia can also account for the intermediate incidence of NPC in these regions.

Excerpt: Before the last ice age, continental Asia extended to Japan and Taiwan through two coastal landmasses known as Tunghailand and Nanhailand (from the Gulf of Tonkin to Japan) and to Borneo and Java through Sundaland (now the Gulf of Siam and Java Sea); now all are under the sea after the rise in sea levels (Figure 3). The original southern China aborigines (protoBaiyue) probably wandered freely along this coastal region, but after the ice age and the following rising sea levels, they became isolated on the islands of Taiwan, Hainan, Borneo, and islandic Southeast Asia. Some of these people were also believed to have migrated north and across the Bering Strait into Alaska, Greenland, and the Americas.

Origins of the Polynesians

 

 

* Cancer Mortality Analysis Among Aborigines in Taiwan by YC Ko, et al.

Abstract: Mortality among Aborigines tribes in Taiwan from malignant neoplasms in the 1971-80 and 1981-90 decades were analyzed. Sex and tribe specific standardized mortality ratios were calculated from death certificate data and compared with the number of expected deaths derived from the cancer mortality of the entire population of Taiwan. Mortality due to oral cancer was statistically significantly higher than expected among Paiwan men in the 1971-80 decade and among Paiwan women from 1971-80 and 1981-90; as was mortality from nasopharyngeal cancer among Bunun, Paiwan and Rukai men from 1981-90 and among Bunun and Paiwan women from 1971-80 and 1981-90; mortality due to stomach cancer among the Atayal, Bunun and Paiwan people from 1971-80 and 1981-90, among Rukai men from 1971-80 and among the Tsou and mixed group women from 1981-90; mortality from liver cancer among Atayal and Bunun men in 1971-80, among Bunun women from 1971-80 and 1981-90 and among Paiwan women in 1981-90; mortality due to nasal cavity, middle ear and paranasal sinuses cancer among Rukai men from 1981-90; and mortality due to bone cancer among Tsou men and Atayal women from 1981-90. Mortality due to colorectal cancer was statistically significantly lower than expected among mixed group men from 1971-80 and in Atayal women from 1981-90; as was mortality from lung cancer among Atayal men and Paiwan women from 1971-80 and among Paiwan and mixed group men in the 1981-90 decade. Overall, the standardized mortality ratio of all cancers in aborigines was a little higher than in the general population of Taiwan. However, differences for ratio or site existed in different tribes.

 

Bunun

 

Paiwan

 

Rukai

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

Stevens–Johnson Syndrome

Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) are two forms of a life-threatening condition affecting the skin in which cell death causes the epidermis to separate from the dermis. The syndrome is thought to be a hypersensitivity complex affecting the skin and the mucous membranes. Although the majority of cases are idiopathic, the main class of known causes is medications, followed by infections and (rarely) cancers.

Signs and Symptoms: SJS usually begins with fever, sore throat, and fatigue, which is misdiagnosed and usually treated with antibiotics. Ulcers and other lesions begin to appear in the mucous membranes, almost always in the mouth and lips but also in the genital and anal regions. Those in the mouth are usually extremely painful and reduce the patient's ability to eat or drink. Conjunctivitis of the eyes occurs in about 30% of children who develop SJS. A rash of round lesions about an inch across arises on the face, trunk, arms and legs, and soles of the feet, but usually not the scalp.

Medication/Drugs: It can be caused by adverse effects of drugs (allopurinol, Aloprim, Zyloprim, Dilantin, Depakote, Levaquin, diclofenac, etravirine, Isotretinoin, aka Accutane, fluconazole, valdecoxib, sitagliptin, oseltamivir, penicillins, barbiturates, sulfonamides, phenytoin, azithromycin, oxcarbazepine, zonisamide, modafinil, lamotrigine, nevirapine, pyrimethamine, ibuprofen, ethosuximide, carbamazepine, nystatin, and gout medications).

Although Stevens–Johnson Syndrome can be caused by viral infections, malignancies or severe allergic reactions to medication, the leading cause appears to be the use of antibiotics and sulfa drugs.

Medications that have traditionally been known to lead to SJS, erythema multiforme and toxic epidermal necrolysis include sulfonamides (antibiotics), penicillins (antibiotics), barbiturates (sedatives), lamotrigine and phenytoin (e.g. Dilantin) (anticonvulsants). Combining lamotrigine with sodium valproate increases the risk of SJS.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are a rare cause of SJS in adults; the risk is higher for older patients, women and those initiating treatment. Typically, the symptoms of drug-induced SJS arise within a week of starting the medication. People with systemic lupus erythematosus or HIV infections are more susceptible to drug-induced SJS.

SJS has also been consistently reported as an uncommon side effect of herbal supplements containing ginseng. SJS may also be caused by cocaine usage.

Prognosis: SJS proper (with less than 10% of body surface area involved) has a mortality rate of around 5%. The risk for death can be estimated using the SCORTEN scale, which takes a number of prognostic indicators into account. Other outcomes include organ damage/failure, cornea scratching and blindness.

 

 

HLA-B75

HLA-B75 (B75) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies certain B*15 gene-allele protein products of HLA-B.

B75 is one of many split antigens of the broad antigen, B15. B75 (B*1502) is associated with a severe drug-induced skin condition in ethnic East Asians.

HLA-B*1502 is associated with Carbamazepine and phenytoin induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome in Chinese and Thai. One study showed a 100% association between B*1502 and the drug induced skin disorder in Chinese. In Europe the B*1502 positive patients are only found in this syndrome of persons of East Asian descent, however B58 confers susceptibility to both groups but to a lesser degree and is sensitive to allopurinol.

 

HLA B*1502 Frequencies

Population	(%)
Philippines Ivatan	22.0
Taiwan Puyuma	18.0
China Guangxi Maonan	14.8
China Yunnan Lisu	12.3
Taiwan Tao	12.0
Singapore Chinese Han	11.6
China Guangzhou	11.0
Hong Kong Chinese	10.2
China Yunnan Nu	9.0
Singapore Riau Malay	8.4
Singapore Javanese Indonesians	8.2
Thailand (3)	8.2
China South Han	7.1
Singapore Thai	6.1
India Khandesh Pawra	6.0
Taiwan Minnan pop 1	5.9
Singapore Chinese	5.7
India West Bhils	4.0
Taiwan Pazeh	3.6
China Guangdong Meizhou Han	3.5
South Africa Natal Tamil	3.1
China Qinghai Hui	2.7
Taiwan Hakka	2.7
Shijiazhuang Tianjian Han	2.4
China North Han	1.9
India Mumbai Marathas	1.9
India North Delhi	1.6
China Beijing	1.5
China Inner Mongolia	1.5
American Samoa	1.0
India North Hindus	1.0
Taiwan Siraya	1.0
Taiwan Tsou	1.0
Ingig. Australian Groote Eylandt	0.7
United Arab Emirates	0.6

 

 

Map of Guangzhou, Taiwan, and the Philippines

 

 

Ivatan People, Philippines (Photo by Anne Jimenez)

 

Puyuma People, Taiwan

 

Tao People, Taiwan

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Southern Mongoloid

Southern Mongoloid populations are a subgroup of Mongoloid populations, distinguished by older criteria like appearance and craniology, or dental patterns. They are a genetically unrelated group, according to Cavalli-Sforza (2000).

In Cavalli-Sforza's genetic clustering work (1988) South Chinese join Southeast Asians in genetic clustering while the North Chinese associate with Koreans, Japanese, Ainu, Bhutanese and Tibetans in genetic clustering. Other Southeast Asians include Malaysian, Viet Muong, Thai, Western Indonesian and Philippine.

Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) find the boundary between Northern and Southern Mongoloids to approximate the Yangtze River, and suggest that their ancestors arrived from Africa via separate routes. Principal component analysis of gene frequencies of Chinese populations

Other scientists have suggested that the finding of sharp genetic differences between North and South China is an artifact of using an insufficient number of samples. However, Xiao and Cavalli-Sforza (2000) has a larger number of samples than previous studies.

Modern biological evidence from the anthropological textbook Human Species (2003) contradicts earlier theories of which groups were more genetically related to other groups. The Human Species(2003) and Physical Anthropology used the genetic clustering of Cavalli-Sforza (2000) in their publication. Humans are all related. Humanity divided itself into the African and the Eurasian/Oceanic branch. The Eurasian and Oceanic branches are the products of this common origin. The Eurasian branch split into the Amerindian and major East Asian branch. The major East Asian branch divided itself into eastern Russian and the East Asian. The Oceanic branch divided itself into the Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders. According to the Human Species (2003), East Asians generally are more genetically similar to the South Asians than to Southeast Asians, because the Far East and the Indian Subcontinent are members of the Eurasian branch while Southeast Asians (including south Chinese) are members of the Oceanic branch. More interestingly, Asians have very local genetic clusters inside these regions, implying different Asian ethnic groups have not historically intermarried with each other. Examples of localized genetic clusters include Japan, Korea, Mongolia and China which form separate genetic clusters from each other.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

History of Guangdong

Guangdong was far away from the center of ancient Chinese civilization in the north China plain. It was populated by peoples collectively known as the Hundred Yue, who may have been Tai-Kadai and related to the Zhuang people in modern Guangxi.

Chinese administration in the region began with the Qin Dynasty, which, after establishing the first unified Chinese empire, expanded southwards and set up Nanhai Commandery at Panyu, near what is now part of Guangzhou. It used to be independent as Nanyue between the fall of Qin and the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. The Han Dynasty (汉朝) administered Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam as Jiao Province. Under the Wu Kingdom（吴国） of the Three Kingdoms period, Guangdong was made its own province, the Guang Province, in 226.

As time passed, the demographics of what is now Guangdong slowly shifted to (Han) Chinese-dominance, especially during several periods of massive migration from the north during periods of political turmoil and/or nomadic incursions from the fall of the Han Dynasty onwards. For example, internal strife in northern China following the rebellion of An Lushan resulted in a 75% increase in the population of Guangzhou prefecture between 740s-750s and 800s-810s. As more migrants arrived, the local population was gradually assimilated to Han Chinese culture, or displaced.

Together with Guangxi, Guangdong was made part of Lingnan Circuit (political division Circuit), or Mountain-South Circuit, in 627 during the Tang Dynasty. The Guangdong part of Lingnan Circuit was renamed Guangnan East Circuit guǎng nán dōng lù in 971 during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). "Guangnan East" is the source of "Guangdong".

As Mongols from the north engaged in their conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song Dynasty retreated southwards, eventually ending up in today's Guangdong. The Battle of Yamen 1279 in Guangdong marked the end of the Southern Song Dynasty (960-1279).

During the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, Guangdong was a part of Jiangxi. Its present name, "Guangdong Province" was given in early Ming Dynasty.

Since the 16th century, Guangdong has had extensive trade links with the rest of the world. European merchants coming northwards via the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea, particularly the Portuguese and British, traded extensively through Guangzhou. Macau, on the southern coast of Guangdong, was the first European settlement in China since 1557. It was the opium trade through Guangzhou that triggered the Opium Wars, opening an era of foreign incursion and intervention in China. In addition to Macau, which was then a Portuguese colony, Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and Kwang-Chou-Wan to the French.

In the 19th century, Guangdong was also the major port of exit for labourers in south-east Asia and the western United States and Canada. As a result, many overseas Chinese communities have their origins in Guangdong. The Cantonese language therefore has proportionately more speakers among overseas Chinese people than mainland Chinese. In the USA, there is a large number of Chinese who are descendants of immigrants from the otherwise unremarkable Guangdong region of Taishan (Toishan in Cantonese), who speak a distinctive dialect of Cantonese called Taishanese (or Toishanese).

During the 1850s, the first revolt of the Taiping Rebellion by the Hakka people took place in Guangdong. Because of direct contact with the West, Guangdong was the center of anti-Manchu and anti-imperialist activity. The generally acknowledged founder of modern China, Sun Yat-Sen, was from Guangdong.

During the early 1920s of the Republic of China, Guangdong was the staging area for Kuomintang (KMT) to prepare for the Northern Expedition, an effort to bring the various warlords of China back under the central government. Whampoa Military Academy was built near Guangzhou to train military commanders.

In recent years, the province has seen extremely rapid economic growth, aided in part by its close trading links with Hong Kong, which borders it. It is now the province with the highest gross domestic product in China.

* The Dissertation About Li, Yao, Zhuang, She People's Revolution in Guangdong in Ming & Ching Dynasty by 练铭志

 

Guangdong : China's Promised Land by Brian Hook (Editor)

 

 

 

Cantonese Society in a Time of Change by Goran Aijmer, Virgil K. Ho

 

 

 

The Rural Economy of Guangdong, 1870-1937: A Study of the Agrarian Crisis and Its Origins in Southernmost China by Alfred H. Lin, A. Lin

 

 

 

Archaeological Finds from the Five Dynasties to the Qing Periods in Guangdong by Chinese University of Hong Kong Staf

 

 

 

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Yue Peoples

Yue (越 or 鉞; also seen as Yueh or Yuet) refers to ancient semi-Sinicized or non-Sinicized peoples of southern China, originally those along the eastern coastline of present-day Zhejiang province. In archaic Chinese, a number of characters (越, 粵, 鉞) were often used interchangeably to represent the same meaning.

Origins and Ancient Usage: In ancient times, the northern Han Chinese referred to the peoples to their south collectively as the Yue. Historian Luo Xianglin has suggested that these peoples shared a common ancestry with the Xia Dynasty. There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. Historical texts often refer to the Hundred Yue tribes (百越. There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. The "Treatise of Geography" in Han Shu notes: "In the seven or eight thousand li from Jiaozhi to Kuaiji (modern southern Jiangsu or northern Zhejiang) the Hundred Yue are everywhere, each with their own clans." Just as the term Celt was used by the Greeks to describe what they perceived to be a broad cultural group, so the term Yue was a culturally relative term for the ancient Chinese. Also like "Celt", Yue is now used in a number of different ways.

Ethnolinguists have suggested that the pronunciaton of Yue may be related to a type of hemp produced in what is now Zhejiang. The character itself is related to the character for "ceremonial axe" (鉞), usually considered a symbol of royal or imperial authority. A number of stone axes have been found in the area of Hangzhou, and there is evidence that the ceremonial axe was a southern invention.

Ancient texts mention a number of Yue peoples. Most of these names survived into early imperial times and can be roughly construed as cultural groupings:

Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Cantonese Yale	Vietnamese	Notes
雒越	Luòyuè	Lokyuht	Lạc Việt	Sea Bird Yue
閩越	Mǐnyuè	Mànyuht	Mân Việt	River Yue
西甌	Xī'ōu	Sāi'āu	Tây Âu	West Valley Yue
甌越	Ōuyuè	Āuyuht	Âu Việt	(East) Valley Yue
滇越,盔越	Diānyuè, Kuīyuè	Dīnyuht, Kwaīyuht	Điền Việt, Khôi Việt	Heavenly Yue, Basin Yue
東越	Dōngyuè	Dōngyuht	Đông Việt	Eastern Yue
於越	Yūyuè	Yūyuht	Ư Việt	Major Yue
揚越	Yángyuè	Yèungyuht	Dương Việt	Ocean Yue
幹越	Gānyuè	Gonyuht	Cán Việt	Main Yue
山越	Shānyuè	Saānyuht	Sơn Việt	Mountain Yue
夜郎	Yèláng	Yehlòng	Dạ Lang	Night Yue
句吳	Gōuwú	Geui'ngh	Câu Ngô
南越	Nányuè	Naàhmyuht	Nam Việt	Southern Yue

Sinification and Displacement: From the Ninth century BC, two northern Yue peoples, the Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue, were increasingly influenced by their Chinese neighbours to their north. These two states were based in the areas of what is now southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang respectively. Their aristocratic elite learned the written Chinese language and adopted Chinese political institutions and military technology. Traditional accounts attribute the cultural change to the Grand Earl of Wu (吳太伯), a Zhou prince who had fled to the south. The marshy lands of the south gave Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue unique characteristics. They did not engage in extensive agrarian agriculture, relying instead more heavily on aquaculture. Water transport was paramount in the south, so the two states became advanced in shipbuilding and developed riverine warfare technology. They were also known for their fine swords.

In the Spring and Autumn Period, the two states, now called Wu and Yue, were becoming increasingly involved in Chinese politics. In 512 BC, Wu launched a large expedition against the large state of Chu, based in the Middle Yangtze River. A similar campaign in 506 succeeded in sacking the Chu capital Ying. Also in that year, war broke out between Wu and Yue and continued with breaks for the next three decades. In 473 BC, the Yue king Goujian finally conquered Wu and was acknowledged by the northern states of Qi and Jin. In 333 BC, Yue was in turn conquered by Chu. The Kings of the state of Yue, and therefore its succesor state Minyue also claimed to be descended from Yu the Great of the chinese Xia dynasty. According to Sima Qian, Wu was founded by Wu Taibo, a brother of zhou wu wang, the King of the chinese Zhou dynasty.

After the unification of China by Qin Shi Huang, it became incorporated into the Chinese empire. The Qin armies also advanced south along the Xiang River to modern Guangdong and set up commanderies along the main communication routes. Throughout the Han Dynasty period two groups of Yue were identified, that of the Nan-Yue in the far south, who lived mainly in the area of what is now Guangdong, Guangxi, and Vietnam; and that of the Min-Yue who lay to the southeast, centred on the Min River in modern Fujian. The Kings of Minyue claimed to be descended from Yu the Great of the chinese Xia dynasty.

Sinification of these peoples was brought about by a combination of imperial military power, regular settlement and Chinese refugees. The difficulty of logistics and the malarial climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue peoples a slow process. When the Chinese came into contact with local Yue peoples, they often wrested control of territory from them or subjugated them by force. When a serious rebellion broke out in 40 AD by the Trung Sisters in what is now modern Vietnam, a force of some 10,000 imperial troops was dispatched under General Ma Yuan. Between 100 and 184 no less than seven outbreaks of violence took place, often calling for strong defensive action by the Chinese.

As Chinese migrants gradually increased, the Yue were gradually forced into poorer land on the hills and in the mountains. Unlike the nomadic peoples of Central Asia, such as the Xiongnu or the Xianbei, however, the Yue peoples never posed any serious threat to Chinese expansion or control. Sometimes they staged small scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements - termed "rebellions" by traditional historians. The Chinese for their part regarded them as being highly uncivilised and prone to fight one another.

While most Yue peoples were eventually sinicized, the Kam-Tai (Daic): Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Sui (Shui), Kam (Dong), Hlai (Li), Mulam, Maonan, Ong-Be (Lingao), Thai, Lao, Shan, and Vietnamese peoples retained their ethnic identities. Some of these peoples also have their own nation-states today. In particular, the Vietnamese people broke free from Chinese rule in the 10th century and have their own state to this day.

Legacy of the Yue Peoples: The fall of the Han Dynasty and the succeeding period of division sped up the process of sinification. Periods of instability and war in northern China, such as the Northern and Southern Dynasties and during the Song Dynasty led to mass migrations of Chinese. Intermarriage and cross-cultural dialogue has led to a mixture of Chinese and non-Chinese peoples in the south. By the Tang Dynasty, the term "Yue" had largely become a regional designation rather than a cultural one A state in modern Zhejiang province during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, for example, called itself "Wu-Yue". Likewise, the "Viet" in "Vietnam" (literally, "Viet South") is a cognate of the "Yue".

The impact of Yue culture on Chinese culture has not been determined authoritatively but it is clear that it is significant. The languages of the ancient states of Wu and Yue form the basis the modern Wu language and to some extent the Min languages of Fujian. Linguistic anthropologists have also determined that a number of Chinese words can be traced to ancient Yue words. An example is the word "jiang" (江), meaning river. To some extent, some remnants of the Yue peoples and their culture can also be seen in some minority groups of China and the Vietnamese people retain the identity.

Modern Usage: In modern Chinese, the characters of "越" and "粵" (both yuè) are differentiated. The former is used to refer to the original territory of the Yue Kingdom, the area of what is now northern Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and Shanghai, especially the areas around Shaoxing and Ningbo. The opera of Zhejiang, for example, is called "Yue Opera" (yueju, 越劇). The first character "越" is also associated with Vietnam. The second character "粵" (yuè) is associated with the southern province of Guangdong. Popularly called "Cantonese", both the standard form and regional dialects of the Cantonese language(Yue language) are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macau and in many Cantonese communities around the world.

* Tattooed Faces and Stilt Houses: Who Were the Ancient Yue? by Heather Peters

* Guangxi Baiyue Culture Exhibition at the National Museum of China in Beijing

 

 

百越

百越又稱為百越族，是居於現今中國南方和古代越人有關之各個不同族群的總稱。文獻上也稱之為百粵、粵，其分佈甚廣，內部「各有種姓」，雜處於現今中國南方各地。在中國歷史上，整個廣大的江南之地，即所謂「交趾至會稽七八千里」，在秦漢以前都是百越族的居住地，他們所使用的古越語，與中國北方所使用的古漢語也相差極大，彼此不能通話。他們是南島語族的始祖

然而「越」實為他稱，該古代民族具體較實際名稱為澳泰，英文名稱為Daic。

越即粵，古代粵、越通用。越族就是生活在長江以南的一個古老的民族。夏朝稱「于越」；商朝稱「蠻越」或「南越」；周朝稱「揚越」、「荊越」；戰國稱「百越」。宋朝人羅泌的《路史》說：「越常、駱越，甌越、甌皚，且甌、西甌，供人，目深、摧夫、禽人、蒼吾、越區、桂國、損子、產里、海癸、九菌、稽余、北帶、仆句、區吳，是渭百越。」（摘自黃現璠撰《試論百越和百濮的異同》一文）。

現在居住在中國南方屬於壯侗語系和苗瑤語系的各個民族，不論是在語言上，或者是在文化習俗上，都與古代的百越族有一定程度的淵源關係。此外，也有某些學者認為，在現今中南半島的一些民族，比如說泰國的泰族、寮國的佬族、緬甸的撣族、越南的京族和芒族、甚至屬於南島民族的台灣原住民，也都和百越族有相當程度的密切關聯。

起源: 根據有關文獻的記載，早在商、 周時期，就有被稱之為「越」的古民族（古代中國人泛稱東南方蠻族為「越」，北方蠻族為「胡」），生活在現今中國的東南及南部地區（王東 2003，3）。春秋晚期至戰國前期，越族曾在今江浙一帶建立強大的越國，共傳8代，歷160多年，與當時中原國家會盟，雄視江淮地區，號稱「霸主」（請參見「勾踐」條目；陳國強 2000）。有學者根據《史記》「越王勾踐世家」的描述，認為越族是夏禹的後代。不過，研究百越族的中國學者宋蜀華認為：「勾踐的祖父夫鐔以上至夏少康庶子無餘，世系不清楚；夏少康經商至周敬王共60餘代，兩者世系相差近1000年，把越王勾踐說成是夏少康的後裔，實難信服」（引自龔佩華 nd）。此外，宋蜀華也認為夏文化和越文化截然不同，因為：「夏人活動地區從未發現過『印紋陶文化』，而『印紋陶』流行地區也從未發現過『二里頭文化』.

根據目前考古學的證據，距今7000年的浙江「河姆渡文化」遺址，很可能就是古越族所創造出來的文化。河姆渡遺址發現了稻穀、稻草和稻殼的堆積，是當時世界發現最早的稻作文化，後來在黃河流域的裴李崗遺址、賈湖遺址和長江中游流域的彭頭山遺址等地發現了更早的稻作文化。此外，現在的考古學家也普遍認爲，廣泛分佈於中國南方各地的以幾何印紋陶爲主要特徵的文化遺存，可能也是由古越族所創造出來的。最近數十年來的考古發掘表明：這種以幾何印紋陶爲主要特徵的文化遺存，在時間上從4000多年前的新石器時代晚期開始，一直延續到商周秦漢時期，在空間上則遍佈於中國東南地區及嶺南一帶（

歷史: 和「古越族」相關的最早文字記錄涉及「于越」，于越是春秋時期之越國的前身，最晚在商朝的時候就已經存在，雖然沒有參加武王伐紂，但至少曾經北上當周成王的賓客。該國傳至勾踐 (500 B.C.)的時候，他試著向北擴張，曾經沿著江蘇的海岸北上膠州灣。古越族和漢族早期的關係主要在貿易，越人以象牙、玳瑁、翠毛、犀角、玉桂和香木等奢侈品，以交換北方的絲帛和手工產品(鍾倫納 2004)。

古越族在經過漫長的歷史演變之後，到了戰國時代，已分化成衆多的支系。故而，從這個時候開始，文獻中便出現了「百越」這一個新的稱謂。戰國後期，除了有百越這個名稱以外，還有「揚越」的名稱，即揚州地區的越族。揚州包括今淮南、長江下游和嶺南的東部地區，有時又包括整個嶺南地區。所以揚越實際也是戰國以來至秦漢對越人的另一種泛稱(王東 2003，3；陳國強 2000)。

秦漢時，相關史籍則泛稱中國南方的民族為「越族」，史稱「北方胡、南方越」。由於歷史的發展和變化，至遲在漢朝初期，百越族已經逐漸形成幾個較強盛而明顯的部分，即「東甌」(東海)、「閩越」、「南越」、「西甌」、以及「雒越」(駱越)。東甌在現今浙江省南部的溫州一帶；閩越在今福建省福州一帶；南越在今廣東省境，後來又發展到廣西以及以南地區；西甌則大概分佈在今廣東西部、廣西南部及以南地區；駱(雒)越主要分佈在現今的越南北部。這些部分都形成了當時該地的政治中心，比如說閩越第一代君主無諸、東海第一代君主騶搖、以及南越王趙佗，都曾經叱吒風雲過一段不算短的時間(陳國強 2000)。

越族所建立的這些政治中心，後來都被漢武帝征服，改為漢朝的郡縣。此後，百越這個名稱就不見於史載，越族之名也十分罕見(陳國強 2000)。

文化特點: 百越族有自己的民族語言和生活、文化特點。百越語為黏著型，不同於漢語的單音成義，故百越語譯成漢語時一字常譯為兩字，如愛為「憐職」，熱為「煦蝦」。有人認為越語與今壯侗語系的語言十分接近。

百越族的生活、風俗習慣也有特點，主要是：水稻種植,著貫頭衣,鑿齒; 斷髮紋身；契臂為盟；多食蛇蛤海產；巢居,干欄式建築；善使舟及水戰；以及善鑄銅器，如青銅劍、銅鐸(大鈴),銅鼓,獵頭,食人等。

文化影響: 雖然在今天已經找不到一個名字叫做「百越族」的民族或族群，不過，百越文化事實上卻透過種種不同的方式，在很多不同民族的文化裡面留下了種種痕跡。以下是一些比較值得加以探討的議題。

對世界貢獻:

• 發明水稻種植。
• 發明茶。
• '發明獨木舟

對於當今某些民族語言的影響: 現有的一些語言學研究均指出，在百越族被漢化以後，其所使用的很多字詞，卻依舊遺留在不少民族現在的語彙當中，比如說屬於侗壯語系和苗瑤語系的中國某些少數民族，被歸為漢語方言的一些南方方言，甚至包括印尼、馬來西亞、夏威夷、紐西蘭等地的南島民族，其語言中都可以找到屬於古越語的「同源字」(盧溢棋 1997)。比如說古越語的「蜘蛛」(lakwa)一詞，就可以在鶴佬語(發音為laaqiaa)、客家話(發音為lakia)、畲語(發音為laukhoe)、馬來/印尼語(發音為lawa、lawa-lawa、labah-labah)、夏威夷語(發音為lanalana、nananana)以及紐西蘭毛利人的拉巴怒伊語(Rapanui)(發音為nanai)等語言當中找到類似的發音(Hoklo.org nd)。 日本語的字眼很多來自南島語族。

對於當今某些民族之習俗的影響: 所謂的「洗骨葬」，或稱「二次葬」，在中國長江以南各地，比如說江蘇、浙江、福建、廣東、台灣的漢人，以及很多少數民族，比如說壯族、藏族，都有這種習俗。事實上，一直到現在，台灣的河洛人和客家人也都還採用這種喪葬儀式，在土葬數年後開棺取骨，然後將全副骨骼一一置入一稱為「金鬥」的陶甕當中。直到馬達加斯加也有此習俗。

這種洗骨葬的習俗，事實上並不是漢族所固有的，而是環太平洋原始民族中普遍分佈的一種文化特質，廣及中國大陸、東南和東北亞洲、南太平洋諸島、以及南北美洲。根據台灣中央研究院民族學學者凌純聲的研究，整個洗骨文化圈裏諸民族所採行的洗骨文化，基本上均為來自相同起源的一個文化習俗，而這個習俗最早的起源地，正是百越族所分佈的華南地區。倭人的水稻種植，斷髮紋身，與生活習慣與百越人出奇相似。

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Âu Việt

The Âu Việt (甌越) were a conglomeration of upland tribes living in what is today the mountainous region of northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi, China, since at least the 3rd century BC. Its capital was located in what is today the Cao Bang Province of northeastern Vietnam.

The Âu Việt were also referred to the Kingdom of East Ou (東甌), descendants of the Yue (state) moved to Fujian after its fall, and the West Ou (西甌; Tây meaning "western"). The West Ou were considered to be one of the Hundred Yue tribes. They had short hair and tattoos, and blackened their teeth. They are considered to have been the ancestors of the upland Tai-speaking minority groups in Vietnam such as the Nung and Tay, as well as the closely related Zhuang people of Guangxi.

The Âu Việt traded with the Lạc Việt, the inhabitants of the state of Văn Lang, which was located in the lowland plains to Âu Việt's south, in what is today the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam, until 258 BC or 257 BC, when Thục Phán, the leader of the alliance of Âu Việt tribes, invaded Văn Lang and defeated the last Hùng Vương. He named the new nation "Âu Lạc," and proclaiming himself king An Dương Vương.

The Qin dynasty conquered the Chu (state) and abolished the status of the Yue royal descendants. After some years, Shi Huang Di sent 500,000 army to conquer the West Ou, started a 3 year guerrilla warfare and killed the West Ou leader. Before the Han Dynasty, the East and West Ou gain independence again. The East Ou was attacked by the Minyue, and Emperor Wu of Han allowed them to move to between Changjiang and Huaihe. The West Ou pay tribute to the Nanyue until it was conquered by the emperor, and it also surrendered. Descendants of these kings lost their status later. Ou (區), Ou (歐) and Ouyang (歐陽) remains in family names.

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An Dương Vương

An Duong Vuong (安陽王) is the title of Thục Phán (蜀泮), who ruled over the ancient kingdom of Âu Lạc from 257 to 207 BC, after defeating the state of Văn Lang and uniting the two tribes Âu Việt and Lạc Việt. He is traditionally said to have lived approximately 100 years.

Historical Accounts: According to old historical records Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư and Khâm Định Việt Sử Thông Giám Cương Mục, Thục Phán was a prince of the Chinese state of Shu (蜀, which shares the same Chinese character as his surname Thục), sent by his father first to explore what are now the southern Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Yunnan and second to move their people to modern day northern Vietnam during the invasion of the Qin Dynasty.

However, modern Vietnamese scholars claim that "Thục Phán" was a native Austro-Asiatic name which meant "God of crossbow", and that he was an indigenous Vietnamese.

Thục Phán apparently came upon the Âu Việt (甌越) territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong, and southern Guangxi province, with its capital in what is today Cao Bang Province). After assembling an army, he defeated King Hùng Vương (雄王) XVIII, the last ruler of the Hồng Bàng Dynasty, around 257 BC. He proclaimed himself An Dương Vương (安陽王, "King An Dương"). He then renamed his newly acquired state from Văn Lang to Âu Lạc (甌雒/甌駱) and established the new capital at Phong Khê in the present-day Phú Thọ town in northern Vietnam, where he tried to build Cổ Loa Thành (Co Loa Citadel), the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of that new capital.

Thục Phán and Âu Lạc’s Administration: There is not much recorded or written about how the new Âu Lạc was administered and organized. Nonetheless, based on Thục Phán's accomplishments, he is assumed to have been an astute, intelligent, and significant figure. Certainly he was a talented general who knew how to exploit the confusion and turmoil in China during that period, not only to grab a piece of land for himself but also to secure his state's prosperity and survival. Around that same time, various states were fighting for control of China. Eventually, the Qin state rose to power and unified China under Emperor Qin Shi Huang. While Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Great Wall, An Dương Vương had begun the construction of a spiral fortress called Cổ Loa Thành to defend against invasions.

Cổ Loa Thành and Âu Lạc: After Thục Phán defeated the last Hùng Vương King and ascended to the throne as An Dương Vương, he renamed Văn Lang to Âu Lạc and established Co Loa Citadel (古螺) as the new capital. He saw the strategic and geographic importance of Cổ Loa. On two of its sides, Co Loa was surrounded by impenetrable mountains and forests. There was also a river flowing by. No one knows why An Dương Vương favored the spiral, shell-like shape of Cổ Loa Thành, but legend has it that its construction was extremely tough and difficult to complete. Each time it seemed near completion, it was undone at night by a hoard of evil spirits.

The Legend of Cổ Loa and the Magic Crossbow: An Dương Vương burnt incense, prayed, made offerings, and evoked the gods to help him. One night, in a dream, a very, very old and venerable man with long, white hair came to him and told him the only person who could help him build his citadel was a golden turtle that lived somewhere around Cổ Loa.

A few days later, while sitting in a boat on the river and thinking about the meaning of his dream, a giant golden turtle appeared suddenly out of the water. The golden turtle told An Dương Vương that he would need one of its claws in order to accomplish his plan. Pulling out one of its claws and throwing it to An Dương Vương, the turtle vanished.

An Dương Vương had Cao Lỗ, his weaponry engineer, build a crossbow incorporating this claw which could shoot thousands of arrows at once. Indeed right after obtaining this claw, An Dương Vương saw his fortunes change. His capital started taking shape. His kingdom prospered and soon was coveted by neighboring states. Among one of those who coveted his territory was Zhao Tuo (Triệu Đà in Vietnamese), a Qin general who refused to surrender to the newly established Han Dynasty. For a period of ten years around 217 to 207 BC, Triệu Đà attempted many invasions to conquer Âu Lạc but failed each time due to An Dương Vương's military skills and defense tactics.

Triệu Đà's Scheme: Triệu Đà (趙佗), having been beaten several times, devised a new plan. He negotiated a peace treaty with Âu Lạc (甌雒/甌駱). He determined to find out where lay the strength and strategies of his foe. He even went so far as to propose marriage between An Dương Vương’s daughter, Princess Mỵ Châu (媚珠) and his son Trọng Thủy (仲始). In time Triệu Đà found out through his daughter-in-law Mỵ Châu that An Dương Vương had a magic crossbow that made him almost invincible. Triệu Đà then he told his son Trọng Thủy to sneak into his father-in-law's palace and steal this "magic crossbow", replacing it with a fake. Triệu Đà, with the magic crossbow in his hands, launched a new attack on his foe and in-law An Dương Vương.

The Loss of Cổ Loa and the Magic Crossbow: This time, Cổ Loa fortress fell into Triệu Đà's hands. An Dương Vương grabbed Mỵ Châu, his only daughter, and fled the scene of the battle. He rode to the river and encountered the giant golden turtle, which told An Dương Vương, “The person responsible for this defeat is sitting right behind you!”

Angered by his own daughter's betrayal, the king slew his daughter (in a popular version of the tale he beheaded her). Then he jumped into the river with the giant golden turtle.

Trọng Thủy, searching for his beloved wife, arrived a few minutes later at the scene. The body of his beloved wife was lying in a pool of blood and his father-in-law was nowhere to be seen. In accordance with conjugal fidelity and devotion, he drew his sword and killed himself as well, in order to be with his wife forever in eternity.

Having defeated An Duong Vuong, Triệu Đà annexed the newly conquered territory to his own and created the state of Nanyue, proclaimed himself a new emperor of the Triệu Dynasty (207-111 BC).

 

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Nanyue

Nanyue (南越) was an ancient kingdom that consisted of parts of the modern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and much of modern northern Vietnam. The kingdom was established by the Chinese general Zhao Tuo (趙佗) of the Qin dynasty who assimilated the customs of the Yue peoples and central China in his territory. Its capital was named Panyu (番禺), in today's Guangzhou, China. In Vietnam, the name Triệu Dynasty (based on the Vietnamese pronunciation of the surname Zhào) is used to refer to the lineage of kings of Nanyue, and by extension the era of Nanyue rule.

History of Nanyue: The history of Nányuè was written in Records of the Grand Historian by Han Dynasty historian Sima Qian, between 109 BC to 91 BC.

After the first Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang united China by conquering all six kingdoms in 219 BC, he ordered his generals to conquer the regions of present-day Guangdong and Guangxi. The conquest was completed in 214 BC. A new administrative unit, Nánhǎi Commandery (南海郡) was formed to rule the area corresponding approximately to present-day Guangdong. Zhào Tuō was appointed to manage a Lóngchuān (龍川), a strategic place in the military. He asked Qin Shi Huang to send 500 thousand people from Central China to Nánhǎi to assimilate the culture of Central China and Yuè.

Establishment: After the death of Qin Shi Huang, a wave of anti-Qin riots swept across central China and the Qin Dynasty soon capitulated. In 208 BC, the head of Nánhǎi Commandery, Rèn Xiāo (任囂), appointed Zhào Tuō to succeed his position and suggested that Zhao establish a country in the south and take advantage of the mountainous boundary with northern China. Zhao soon reinforced the defences in the mountain passes north and replaced the Qin officials with his own followers. In 203 BC, he conquered another two commanderies, Guìlín (桂林郡, approximately Guangxi) and Xiàng "Elephant" (象郡, approximately Yunnan, north and central Vietnam), at the south of the mountain. The new kingdom of Nányuè was born, with Pānyú as the capital; Zhào Tuō declared himself Wǔ Wáng (武王, lit. martial king) of Nányuè.

Liu Bang, after years of war with his rivals, established the Han dynasty and reunified Central China in 202 BC. Liu and his successors adopted a policy of peace to give his empire time to regenerate. In 211 BC, the emperor Liu sent Lù Jiǎ (陸賈) to Nányuè to appoint Zhào Tuō as the King of Nányuè. Trade relations were established at the border between Nányuè and the Han kingdom of Changsha. Although formally a Han subject state, Nányuè retained a large measure of effective autonomy.

After the death of Liu Bang in 195 BC, the government was put in the hands of his wife, Empress Lü Zhi, who served as empress dowager over their son Emperor Hui of Han and then Emperor Hui's sons Liu Gong and Liu Hong. Zhao Tuo believed that Wu Chen (吳臣), the Prince of Changsha, had made false accusations against him to get Empress Dowager Lü to block the trade between the states and to prepare to conquer the Nanyue to merge into his principality of Changsha. In revenge, he then declared himself the emperor of Nányuè and attacked the principality of Changsha. Lǚ sent general Zào (灶) to punish the Zhào Tuō. The hot and humid weather made soldiers fall ill and the army unable to go south of the mountains. The army withdrew. With the military success, Zhào Tuō took in the surrounding states of Mǐnyuè (閩越) in the east and Ōuluò (甌雒) in the west as subject kingdoms. The empress dowager then killed some of Zhao's clan members within Han territory and damaged his ancestors' tombs.

In 179 BC, Liu Heng ascended the Emperor of Han. He reversed the policy of the empress. He ordered officials to visit the family town Zhēndìng (真定), garrison the town and make offerings to his ancestors regularly. His prime minister Chén Píng (陳平) suggested sending Lù Jiǎ to Nányuè as they were familiar with each other. Zhào Tuō felt surprised on Lù's arrival. He then withdrew his title of emperor and Nányuè became Han's subject state.

Zhao Mo: In 137 BC, Zhao Tuo died. His grandson Zhao Mo (趙眛; also known as Zhao Hu, 趙胡, in the Records of the Grand Historian) succeeded the king of Nanyue. Ying Xing (郢興), the king of Minyue, attacked Nanyue. Zhao Mo asked the Emperor Liu Che to send troops to halt the attack of Minyue. The emperor sent two generals to Minyue. Before Han's advancing to Minyue, Ying Xing's younger brother Yu Shan (餘善) killed Ying Xing and surrendered.

The emperor Liu Che sent Zhuang Zhu (莊助) to Nanyue. Zhao Mo thanked the Emperor and sent his son Zhao Yingqi (趙嬰齊) to the Han capital, Chang'an. He also wanted to go Chang'an but was stopped by his minister for fear that he could not return and it would be the end of the kingdom. He thus pretended to be sick and stayed in Nanyue. He really fell sick later for over 10 years and died. He received the posthumous name Wen Di (文帝).

Zhao Yingqi: Zhao Yingqi returned to Nanyue and succeeded the king. He married a woman of family Jiu (樛) from Handan and born a son Zhao Xing (趙興) when he was in Chang'an. He asked the Emperor to appoint Jiu as his queen and Zhao Xing his crown prince. He sent his second son to Chang'an. Zhao Yingqi died with posthumous name Ming Wang (明王).

Zhao Xing: Zhao Xing succeeded Zhao Yingqi as king. As the king was young, the king's mother Jiu took control of the kingdom. In 113 BC, the Emperor sent Anguo Shaoji (安國少季) to Nanyue ask the king and the king's mother to visit the Emperor. Anguo Shaoji was in fact Jiu's lover when she was in Chang'an. They renewed their affair which made the subjects mistrust the king's mother. To secure their positions, the king and his mother wanted Nanyue to be a kingdom within the Han Empire. The king, his mother, and Anguo Shaoji tried to persuade Lu Jia (呂嘉) and other ministers to follow. Lu Jia stood and left. The king's mother tried to kill him but stopped by the king.

Lu Jia refused to meet the king and planned to revolt. As he knew the king had no intention to kill him, the plan was not carried out for months.

Zhao Jiande: The minister Lu Jia revolted and killed the king and the king's mother. He named Zhao Jiande (趙建德), the eldest son of Zhao Yingqi, to be the king of Nanyue. In autumn 112 BC the emperor sent a navy of a hundred thousand strong to attack Nanyue. In winter 111 BC the capital Panyu fell and many surrendered. Lu Jia and Zhao Jiande fled out to sea but were captured soon. Nanyue was officially incorporated into Han.

Kings

personal name				reign name				reign period	other names
Chinese	Quốc ngữ	Pinyin	Cantonese	Chinese	Quốc ngữ	Pinyin	Cantonese
趙佗/趙他	Triệu Đà	Zhào Tuó	Chiu To/Chiu Ta	武王	Vũ Vương	Wǔ Wáng	Mo Wong	203–137 BC
趙眜	Triệu Mạt	Zhào Mò	Chiu Mut	文王	Văn Vương	Wén Wáng	Man Wong	137–122	趙胡
趙嬰齊	Triệu Anh Tề	Zhào Yīngqí	Chiu Ying-chai	明王	Minh Vương	Míng Wáng	Ming Wong	122–115
趙興	Triệu Hưng	Zhào Xìng	Chiu Hing	哀王	Ai Vương	Āi Wáng	Oi Wong	115–112
趙建德	Triệu Kiến Đức	Zhào Jiàndé	Chiu Kin-tak	陽王	Dương Vương	Yáng Wáng	Yeung Wong	112–111

Archaeological Findings: The Nanyue Kingdom Palace Ruins, located in the city of Guangzhou covers 15,000 square metres. Excavated in 1995, it contains the remains of the ancient Nanyue palace. In 1996, it was listed as protected National Cultural Property by the Chinese government. Crescent-shaped ponds, Chinese gardens and other Qin architecture were discovered in the excavation.

In 1983, the ancient tomb of the Nanyue King Wang Mu (王墓) was discovered in Guangzhou, Guangdong. In 1988, the Museum of the Tomb of the King of Southern Yue in Western Han Dynasty was constructed on this site, to display more than 1000 excavated artefacts including 500 pieces of bronzes, 240 pieces of jade and 246 pieces of metal. In 1996, the Chinese government listed this site as a protected National Heritage Site.

A bronze seal inscribed "Seal for Captain of Tu Pho County" was uncovered at Thanh Hoa in northern Vietnam during the 1930s. Owing to the similarity to seals found at the tomb of the second king of Nam Viet, this bronze seal is recognized as an official seal of the Nam Viet Kingdom. There were artifacts that were found in which belonged to the Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam. The goods were found buried alongside the tomb of the second king of Nam Viet.

Đông Sơn Culture

Drum from Sông Đà, Vietnam. Dong Son II culture. Mid-1st millennium BC. Bronze

The Đông Sơn culture was a prehistoric Bronze Age culture that was centered at the Red River Valley of northern Vietnam. Its influence flourished to other parts of Southeast Asia, including the Indo-Malayan Archipelago from about 1000 BC to 1 BC.

The Dong Son people were skilled at cultivating rice, keeping buffaloes and pigs, fishing and sailing with long dug-out canoes. They also were skilled bronze casters, as can be seen in the famous Dong Son drums, which have been found widely in Southeast Asia and southern China.

The Dong Son culture is linked to the Tibeto-Burman culture, the Dai culture in Yunnan and Laos, the Mon-Khmer cultures and the culture associated with the Plain of Jars in Laos. Similar artifacts have been found in Cambodia along the Mekong River dating back to the 4th millennium B.C. Dong Son influence is seen throughout South-East Asia, from the moko drum of Alor, Indonesia (suspected of originating with Dong Son bronze drums) to the design of keris knife.

To the south of the Dong Son culture was the proto-Cham Sa Huynh culture.

Origins: The theory based on the assumption that bronze casting in eastern Asia originated in northern China; however, this idea has been discredited by archaeological discoveries in north-eastern Thailand in the 1970s. In the words of one scholar, "Bronze casting began in Southeast Asia and was later borrowed by the Chinese, not vice versa as the Chinese scholars have always claimed".

This interpretation is supported by the work of modern Vietnamese archaeologists. They have found that the earliest bronze drums of Dong Son are closely related in basic structural features and in decorative design to the pottery of the Phung Nguyen culture. It is still uncertain whether the bronze drums were made for religious ceremonies, to rally men for war, or for another secular activity. The various discerning images and arrow points engraved on the drums has raised speculation that the drums may have been used as a local seasonal calendar. Furthermore, the recurring images of a figure holding a scroll of paper and the finding of these dated papers at various sites may point to the Dong Son as the first peoples who began the paper making process.

The bronze drums were made in significant proportions in Vietnam and parts of Southern China and were then traded to the south and west to places such as Java and the Bali islands. Thus it became valued by people with very different cultures. The Dong Son bronze drums exhibit the advanced techniques and the great skill in the lost-wax casting of large objects, the Co Loa drum would have required the smelting of between 1 and 7 tons of copper ore and the use of up to 10 large castings crucibles at one time. Most scholars agree the Dong Son drums display an artistic level reaching perfection that few cultures of the time could rival.

Expansion of the Dong Son Culture: The discovery in the late XVII century of large, elaborately incised drums in mainland and island Southeast Asia first alerted Western scholars to the existence in the region of distinctive early bronze-working cultures. Ranging in height from a few inches to over six feet, up to four feet in diameter, and often of considerable weight, such drums are the most widely dispersed products of the Dong Son culture. Examples produced in Vietnam, in addition to works made locally, have been found in South China, throughout mainland Southeast Asia, and in Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Irian Jaya. The function of these drums, often found in burials, remains unclear: they may have been used in warfare or as part of funerary or other ceremonial rites. Models of the drums, produced in bronze or clay, were made to be included in burials. This small bronze example has the rounded top, curved middle, and splayed base often found in drums from Vietnam. The central loop and the four small frogs on the tympanum are characteristic features of examples produced from the III century B.C. to the I century A.D. The starburst pattern in the center of the tympanum, a standard motif on Dong Son drums, is surrounded by a row of linked concentric circles and crosshatching. These designs are repeated around the side of the top section and just above the base. On the center of the drum, four stylized scenes showing warriors. Many bronze drums of the Dong Son period have been reported in South and Southwest China, Burma, Thailand, Laos and Indonesia. In Vietnam, approximately 140 drums were discovered in many locations throughout Vietnam from the high land region of the north to the plains of the south and as far as to the Phu Quoc island, in the Gulf of Thailand.

Vietnam: Nam(Nan) means "south" and thus the term Nam Viet(Nan Yue) means "Southern Viet(Yue)." Nam Viet is the modern Vietnamese notation, while Nan Yue is the modern Chinese (Mandarin) pronunciation. In historical studies "Nam Viet(Nan Yue)" is used in this way as either a geographical or a historic concept

The people of Vietnam regained independence and broke away from China in 938 AD after their victory at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. They formed their own kingdom and called it Đại Việt "大越“ (The Great Việt Kingdom). This kingdom grew stronger; it expanded south and conquered the Champa kingdom (in central Vietnam) and most of the Khmer empire (in present-day southern Vietnam), forcing the Khmer to migrate. In 1800s, Nguyen Anh, a Vietnamese Emperor, wanted to change his kingdom's name from Dai Viet to Nam Viet, however there wasn't an agreement politically. The Kinh people (a subset of the Yue/Yuet/Viet peoples) form the modern majority ethnic group of Vietnam.

 

 

Zhao Tuo

Zhao Tuo (趙佗; Vietnamese: Triệu Đà), was a Chinese commanding general of the Qin Dynasty who later founded the kingdom of Nanyue (南越). The period of rule under Zhao Tuo is also known to the Vietnamese as the Triệu Dynasty (赵朝).

Early Life: Zhao was born in approximately 230 BC in Zhending (真定), in what is today the Hebei province of northern China, while that region was part of the state of Zhao. The state of Zhao was defeated and absorbed by the state of Qin in 222 BC, whereupon Zhao Tuo became a citizen of the state of Qin. He later served in a Qin expeditionary force that was sent south. In 206 BC, Zhao Tuo defeated the Au Lac kingdom of An Dương Vương (安阳王) and merged it with Guangdong and Guangxi, which were under his command during the time of Qin rule. Along the way, he married a Yue wife.

Creation of Nanyue: At the end of the Qin Dynasty, he took control of the region of modern-day Guangdong and Guangxi. Zhao Tuo built up his power and territory, partially through alliances with native Yue nobility and chieftains. He then declared himself the King of Nanyue ("Southern Yue") and set up his capital at Panyu (番禺; Vietnamese: Phiên Ngung), the site of modern-day Guangzhou.

The state was not peaceful. There was the state of Changsha (長沙) to the north, with which it had long been in conflict; to the east there was the warlike Minyue (閩粵; Vietnamese: Mân Việt) state; and to the west there were the Southeastern Yi (西南夷) which did not adopt Han ways. Also, within the Nanyue territory there were Western Ou (西甌; Vietnamese: Tây Âu) and Luo Yue (駱越; Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), which were not very submissive. But the largest threat came from the Han Dynasty which coveted the Nanyue state.

From Tensions to Peace and Stability: Early in his reign, Emperor Gaozu of Han (漢高祖) gave three commanderies (郡) to Prince of Changsha Wu Rui (吳芮), and appointed Yao Wuyu, Marquis of Haiyang (海陽侯徭無餘: Hải-dương Hầu Diêu Vũ Dư) and Zhi, Prince of Nanhai (南海王織: Nam-hải Vương Chức). Emperor Gaozu also put an army in Changsha state to watch over the movements of the Nanyue kingdom, which made Zhao Tuo worry about this situation. Zhao Tuo took opportunity on trading and imported things in large amounts from the Central Plains, and Zhao Tuo also gave tribute to central authotity. After Gaozu died, Emperor Hui of Han (漢惠帝) succeeded him. The new emperor respected the treaty made by his father, and so did Zhao Tuo.

Empress Lü Raising Tensions: After seven years of the reign of Emperor Hui, Empress Dowager Lü (吕雉) came to power. In the beginning everything went on as usual. But in 183 BCE, she suddenly declared to restrict the trade of Han with others, this included useful products such as iron tools and horses to Nanyue territory. This was because Wu Rui, King of Changsha, who was the only non-Liu king in Han territory, who was treated well by the Empress (Gao Zu removed all non-Liu kings except Wu Rui since his state was not much of power, and the empress wanted to appoint Lü kings). The blockade had a great impact on the Nanyue economy, since Nanyue needed iron plow tools, and people were unhappy about the blockade.

Zhao Tuo thought that this must be the trickery of the Prince of Changsha. He realized that the Han Dynasty was powerful, so he sent messengers to the Chinese capital of Chang'an (長安) to request to release the blockade. But Prince of Changsha Wu Rui made the messengers prisoners in Chang'an. Wu Rui further said bad things about Zhao Tuo, which made Empress Dowager Lü angry. Then she killed Zhao Tuo's relatives in the Central Plains and destroyed Zhao Tuo's ancestral tomb (destruction of ancestral tombs was in ancient times viewed as a very serious thing). Zhao Tuo realised that political approach would no longer succeed.

So, in 183 BCE, he declared himself Emperor Wu of Nanyue (南越武帝; Vietnamese: Nam Việt Vũ Đế). He had been long in conflict with Prince of Changsha Wu Rui, so he sacked Changsha country to the North. Then the Empress ordered an attack on Nanyue, but most of the army died by disease and could not march to Nanyue successfully, but the military conflict did not stop until the Empress died. As the victor, Zhao Tuo also extended his territory by conquering towns near the boundary. He also established relationship with Minyue, Xi'ou, and Luoyue with valuables. But this war almost completely wiped out the trade relationship between the Central Plains and Nanyue.

Back as Vassal and Death: In 179 BC, Emperor Wen of Han (漢文帝) inherited the throne. The new Emperor abolished some cruel punishments made by Qin. Zhao Tuo took opportunity of this, and communicated to the Emperor that if he removed the two generals from Changsha and restored his relatives in Zhen Ding, he would be at peace with Han. Emperor Wen immediately took action. He repaired the tomb of Zhao's ancestors, and found one Zhao family member who survived, and also moved the Han army out of Changsha. Then Zhao Tuo revoked his title of emperor and Nanyue became a vassal state of the Han once more.

Zhao Tuo died in 137 BC at the age of ninety-three. After that, Emperor Wu was able to control his successors and in 111 BC annexed the kingdom as the prefecture of Jiaozhi (交趾; Vietnamese: Giao Chỉ).

 

 

Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King

Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King (西漢南越王博物館, 南越王墓) is a museum in Jiefangbei Road, Yuexue District, Guangzhou, southern China. With an area of 1,4000 sq. m, the tomb is the witness of Guangzhou’s history of over 2,000 years. It is well known for its well-preserved tomb and funerary antiquity from the Han Dynasty, as well as elegant and grand architecture from the Lingnan (south of the Nanling Mountain) area.

The owner of the tomb is the second king, Zhao Mo (r. 137 BC – 122 BC).

Layout: Hidden 20 meters (65.6 feet) underground, the tomb is made up of 750 huge stones with colorful murals. The over 1,000 pieces of cultural relics, bronzeware and terra cotta ware in particular, feature the Yue Culture of south China (Nanyue Culture). Represented also are traces of central Chinese culture, the Chu culture of south China, the Bashu (Ba State, Shu State) culture of southwest China, the Hun culture from the northern grassland, and even foreign cultures.

The tomb was discovered in 1983, 20 meters under Xianggang Shan (Elephant Hill) in Guangzhou on a construction site for a hotel, and was excavated. The tomb measures 10.85 meters in length and 12.43 meters in width. It is divided in 7 parts, with a front chamber, east and west wing rooms, the main coffin chamber, east and west side rooms, and a back storage chamber.

Artefacts: The tomb has yielded more than 1,000 burial artefacts, a chariot, gold and silver vessels, musical instruments, and human sacrifices were found (15 courtiers were buried alive with him to serve him in death). It is also the only tomb of the early Western Han Dynasty that has murals on its walls.

The tomb also yielded the oldest imperial seal discovered in a Chinese tomb: the seal, with the name "Zhaomo", declared the royal corpse to be “Emperor Wen", indicating that he considered himself equal in rank to the Han ruler.

Alongside Chinese artifacts, pieces from the steppes, and Iranian and Hellenistic Central Asian regions have been found: a Persian silver box found in the tomb is the earliest imported product found to date in China.

A silk-jade garment made up of 2,291 pieces of jade is the spotlight of the mausoleum. It is acknowledged that jade garments with pieces connected by gold, silver, or copper are not uncommon. But this garment is unique for its jade pieces connected by silk which makes it the only one of its kind in the world. Nor are historical records available to verify other jade garments connected by silk thread. In addition, the style of buttons down the front is unique among unearthed jade garments. This silk-sewn-jade garment shows the early development of jade garments as well as development of the Nanyue culture.

Three sets of bronze serial bells, thirty-six bronze vessels, thirty-six bronze mirrors, and three gold seals is the historical thumb made by intellectual Nanyue people in China and well presents the Nanyue Culture.

Zhào Mò (趙眜) was the second ruler of the kingdom of Nanyue (Vietnamese: Nam Việt). The name of this kingdom means "Southern Việt" (or Southern Yue). It included parts of southern China, as well as northern Vietnam. His capital was Pānyú, modern Guǎngzhōu. The culture of the kingdom encouraged assimilation between the native Yuè and immigrant Chinese. Zhào Mò was a grandson of Zhào Tuō (who had outlived his sons). Compared to his grandfather, Zhào Mò was a weak king and allowed Nam Việt to fall under the influence of China. (In traditional history, his political weakness is treated as a reflection of personal moral failing.) He rule began in 137 BC and ended with his death in 122 BC. In Vietnamese history, he is considered a king of Vietnam.

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History of the Cantonese Language

Qin and Han: In ancient China, Guangdong was called Nanyue, and very few Han people lived there. Therefore, the Chinese language was not widely spoken there at that time. However, in the Qin Dynasty Chinese troops moved south and conquered the Baiyue territories, and thousands of Han people began settling in the Lingnan area. This migration led to the Chinese language being spoken in the Lingnan area. After Zhào Tuó was made the Duke of Nanyue by the Han Dynasty and given authority over the Nanyue region, many Han people entered the area and lived together with the Nanyue population, consequently affecting the livelihood of the Nanyue people as well as stimulating the spread of the Chinese language. Although Han Chinese settlements and their influences soon dominated, some indigenous Nanyue population did not escape from the region. Today, the degree of interaction between Han Chinese and the indigenous population remains vague due to the lack of historical records.

Sui: In the Sui Dynasty, Zhongyuan was in a period of war and discontent, and many people moved southwards to avoid war, forming the first mass migration of Han people into the South. As the population in the Lingnan area dramatically rose, the Chinese language in the south developed significantly. Thus, the Cantonese language began to develop more significant differences with central Chinese.

Tang: As the Han population in the Guangdong area continued to rise during the Tang Dynasty, some indigenous people living in the south had been culturally assimilated by the Han population, while others moved to other regions (such as Guangxi), developing their own dialects. At the time, Cantonese was affected by central Chinese and became more standardized, but it further developed a more independent language structure, vocabulary, and grammar.

Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing: In the Song Dynasty, the differences between central Chinese and Cantonese became more significant, and the languages became more independent of one another. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, Cantonese evolved still further, developing its own characteristics.

Mid to Late Qing: In the late Qing, the dynasty had gone through a period of maritime ban under the Hai jin. Guangzhou remained one of the only cities that allowed trading with foreign countries, since the trade chamber of commerce was established there. Therefore, some foreigners learned Cantonese and some Imperial government officials spoke Cantonese, making the language very popular in Cantonese-speaking Guangzhou. Also, the European control of Macau and Hong Kong had increased the exposure of Cantonese to the world.

20th Century: In the Cantonese-speaking region of mainland China, Mandarin is used for official purposes while Cantonese is used more informal situations.

In Hong Kong, Hong Kong Cantonese is the main and dominant form of spoken Chinese and is used in education, the government, public life, the media and entertainment (e.g. Hong Kong cinema), and in business dealings with Cantonese-speaking overseas Chinese communities.

Nowadays, due to Putonghua (Mandarin) being the medium of education on the mainland, many youngsters in the Cantonese speaking region in mainland China do not know specific historical and scientific vocabularies in Cantonese but do know social, cultural, entertainment, commercial, trading, and all other vocabularies. Cantonese is widely spoken and learned by overseas Chinese of Guangdong and Hong Kong origin.

The popularity of Cantonese-language media and entertainment from Hong Kong has led to a wide and frequent exposure of Cantonese to large portions of China and the rest of Asia. Cantopop and the Hong Kong film industry are prominent examples of modern Cantonese language media.

 

 

Zhou -- Qin -- Ba (巴國) / Shu (蜀國) --Shu Yu -- Cantonese

Zhou -- Qin -- Jiao Zhou -- Cantonese

 

 

Ba and Shu States

 

 

Ba State

Ba (巴國) was an ancient state in eastern Sichuan, China. Its original capital was Yicheng (Enshi City), Hubei. Ba was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. The modern ethnic minority Tujia people trace their origins back to the Ba people.

Ba, often described as a loose confederation or a collection of chiefdoms, consisted of several loosely-affiliated independent clans who recognised a king. The Ba clans were highly diverse, being composed of multiple ethnicities. Archaeological evidence shows that the Ba people relied primarily on fishing and hunting, with low levels of agriculture (no evidence of irrigation).

Ba may have aided the founders of the Zhou Dynasty in its overthrow of the Shang Dynasty at the Battle of Muye; however, Ba's first definitive appearance in recorded history occurred in 703 BC; the Zuo Zhuan recorded that Ba took part in a joint military operation with Chu against Deng.

Ba territory originally included areas in the Han River valley; the ascendance of Chu pushed Ba westwards and further into the Sichuan basin. Chu expansion forced Ba to move its capital several times. According to Chang Qu, capitals or administrative centers of Ba included Jiangzhou (Chongqing), Dianjiang (Hechuan), and Pingdu (Fengdu), with its final capital at Langzhong (閬中). During the Warring States Period, Qin, Chu and Shu, all more powerful states, shared a common border with Ba.

Although Chu sometimes encroached on Ba territory, Ba shared a complex relationship with Chu, with strong trade and marriage ties. Chu also employed many Ba mercenaries as soldiers in its own army. This practice sometimes caused problems for Chu; in one instance, Ba mercenaries employed by Chu rebelled and besieged the Chu capital in 676 or 675 BC.

Ba and Zu allied with Qin in Qin's invasion of Shu. After the successful invasion, Qin immediately conquered its two allies and captured the last Ba king. Ba was then converted into a Qin commandery. Unlike its management of Shu, Qin allowed the Ba elite to retain direct rule and did not force large -scale migrations of Qin people into Ba territory. The Ba elite would later be marginalized through a policy of divide and rule.

Ba Culture: The tiger was an important part of Ba mythology, with the white tiger being held in highest esteem. Artifacts from Ba archaeological sites often employ tiger motifs. Other distinctive features of Ba culture include its distinctive curved blades, boat-shaped coffin burials and Ba-style bronze drums (chunyu 錞于), which were used to communicate in battle.

Warfare played an important role in Ba society. The Ba people were famous for their war songs and dances. Their warriors were often employed as mercenaries by other states, and weapons were prevalent in Ba grave goods.

Ba and Shu developed their own writing systems, found on bronzeware. There are three scripts. One pictographic script was unique to Ba, and two (possibly phonetic) scripts were found at Ba and Shu sites. All three scripts remain undecipherable today.

 

 

Shu State

Shu (古蜀) was an ancient state in what is now Sichuan, China. Shu derived its power from the Chengdu Plain, with its territory primarily in the central and western Sichuan basin, as well as in the upper Han River valley. Shu was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. Its capital was at Chengdu.

History : Shu is first mentioned in history as an alliance member with Zhou in overthrowing the Shang Dynasty, taking part in the Battle of Muye. In the archaeological record, post-Muye Shu showed a culture with advanced military technology equivalent to that of the Zhou states; however, Shu military technology stagnated for the next several centuries, mirrored by its lack of mention in recorded history.

Legend states that Shu was ruled at one time by the mythical king, Duyu (杜宇), and his descendants. Shu was later ruled by the Kaiming (開明) kings. During the later half of the Spring and Autumn Period, Shu culture increasingly borrowed from Chu and Ba cultures; for example, Shu copied the practice of boat coffin burials from Ba. The archaeological evidence also shows that Shu interacted with the cultures to the south in Yunnan and Guizhou.

During the Warring States Period, Qin and Chu increasingly encroached on the Han river valley. Clashes with Shu inevitably began to arise; Shu fought Qin in 387 BC and Chu in 377 BC.

Conquest by Qin: Archaeological evidence shows that several gallery roads from Qin to Shu were built during the Warring States Period over extremely difficult terrain, the Qinling Mountains and the Daba Mountains. Although legend attributes the building of the first gallery road, the Stone Cattle Road (石牛道), to the last Kaiming king (being tricked by Qin), the roads were probably built by Qin to prepare for its invasion of the Sichuan basin.

Qin took advantage of a dispute between the last Kaiming king and his brother, the Marquis of Zu, to invade Shu. The Marquis of Zu had allied with Ba in attacking Shu. In response, the Kaiming king invaded Zu and sent the Marquis of Zu into exile in Qin. The Marquis of Zu then appealed to King Huiwen of Qin to invade Shu.

At this critical juncture, King Huiwen's two primary advisors, Zhang Yi and Sima Cuo, held opposing views on invading Shu. Zhang Yi believed that Qin was close to winning control over the Central Plain, arguing instead for an attack on Qin's traditional nemesis, Han. On the other hand, Sima Cuo argued that invading Shu would greatly increase the agricultural wealth of Qin, tipping the balance of power in Qin's favor. King Huiwen agreed with Sima Cuo and sent his two advisors to lead the invasion of Shu. Qin defeated Shu and killed the last Kaiming king.

Shu under Qin rule: Qin turned Shu into a commandery and applied a strict process for integrating Shu into Qin. Qin sent officials to rule directly in Shu and actively encouraged migration of people from Qin into Shu. Although Qin tried to placate the populace by retaining the Kaiming rulers as the Marquis of Shu, Shu would rebel many times against Qin; in turn, Qin would respond by reinvading or suppressing Shu.

When King Huiwen died in 311 BC, a Qin official in Shu, Chen Zhuang, led a rebellion against Qin. Sima Cuo, Zhang Yi and Gan Mao led Qin forces into Shu and suppressed the rebellion. In 301 BC, Marquis Hui of Shu, a Kaiming descendant, rebelled. Sima Cuo led Qin forces into Shu and suppressed the rebellion. Marquis Hui's replacement, Marquis Wan, also rebelled against Qin. This time, the Qin governor in Shu, Zhang Ruo, suppressed the rebellion. After the last rebellion, the Kaiming descendants were permanently removed from actual power.

After securing its control over Shu, Qin used Shu as a place of exile, a practice later followed by the Han Dynasty.

 

 

Sanxingdui

Sanxingdui bronze heads with gold foil masks

Sanxingdui (三星堆; literally "three stars mound") is the name of an archaeological site in China, now believed to be the site of an ancient Chinese city. The previously unknown Bronze Age culture was re-discovered in 1987 when archaeologists excavated remarkable artifacts, that radiocarbon dating dated as being from the 12th-11th centuries BC. Leaving behind nothing in the historical record, not even in myth, the unknown culture that produced these artifacts is now known as the Sanxingdui Culture. A museum housing the artifacts is located near the city of Guanghan.

The Sanxingdui archaeological site is located about 40 kilometers northeast of Chengdu in Sichuan Province, 10 kilometers east of the city of Guanghan, but 50km from the city of treasures

In 1929, a farmer unearthed a large stash of jade relics while digging a well, many of which found their way through the years into the hands of private collectors. Generations of Chinese archaeologists searched the area without success until 1986, when workers accidentally found sacrificial pits containing thousands of gold, bronze, jade, and pottery artifacts that had been broken (perhaps ritually disfigured), burned, and carefully buried. Researchers were astonished to find an artistic style that was completely unknown in the history of Chinese art, whose baseline had been the history and artefacts of the Yellow River civilization(s).

This ancient culture had remarkably advanced bronze casting technology which was acquired by adding lead to the usual combination of copper and tin creating a stronger substance that could create substantially larger and heavier objects; for instance, the world's oldest life-size standing human statue (260 cm. high, 180 kilograms), and a bronze tree with birds, flowers, and ornaments (396 cm.), which some have identified as renderings of the fusang tree of Chinese mythology. The most striking finds were large bronze masks and bronze heads (some with gold foil masks) represented with angular human features and exaggerated oblique eyes, some with protruding eye pupils and large upper ears. Based upon the design of these heads, archeologists believe they were mounted on wooden supports or totems, perhaps dressed in clothing. Other bronze artefacts include birds with eagle-like bills, tigers, a large snake, zoomorphic masks, bells, and what appears to be a bronze spoked wheel but is more likely to be decoration from an ancient shield. Apart from bronze, Sanxingdui finds included jade artifacts consistent with earlier Chinese neolithic cultures, such as cong and zhang.

The Sanxingdui Culture was a mysterious civilization in southern China, which was in the kingdom of Shu during the period of the Shang Dynasty. Although they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang, their culture was never recorded by Chinese historians. Sanxingdui culture is thought to be divided into several phases. The first one may have been independent, while the later phases merged with Ba, Chu, and other cultures.

Besides Sanxingdui, other archeological discoveries in Sichuan, including the Baodun (寶墩) and Jinsha (金沙) cultures, all indicate that civilizations in southern China go back at least 5,000 years. Such evidence of independent cultures in different regions of China defies the traditional theory that the Yellow River was the sole "cradle of Chinese civilization."

Ancient Sichuan : Treasures from a lost civilization by Robert Bagley (Editor)

 

 

 

 

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Pearl River

The Pearl River (珠江) or less commonly, the "Guangdong (a.k.a. Canton) River" (Yue Jiang) (粵江), is China's third longest river (2,200 km, after the Yangtze River and the Yellow River), and second largest by volume (after the Yangtze). Located in the south, it flows into the South China Sea between Hong Kong and Macau. Its lower reach forms the Pearl River Delta.

The Pearl River is named after a sandy or stony island in the middle of the river called "Sea Pearl" (海珠). This island is now in the bank, due to the river's change of course.

It is formed by convergence of the Xi Jiang ("the West River"), the Bei Jiang ("the North River"), and the Dong Jiang ("the East River") . The river flows through the majority of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, and Guizhou Provinces, and parts of Hunan and Jiangxi, forming the 409,480 km² Pearl River Basin (珠江流域).

 

 

Liangguang

Liangguang (兩廣; literally "pair of Guangs", also spelled Liang-guang) is a term referring to the province of Guangdong and autonomous region (formerly province) of Guangxi on the southern coast of China. Before 1988, Guangdong province also included what is now the province of Hainan. The names of the two entities form a pair, as they literally mean "Guang-East" and "Guang-West". "Guang" itself means "expanse" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture (Guangzhou) in 226 AD. During the Qing Dynasty, the office of the Governor-General of Liangguang existed from 1735 to 1911 to oversee both provinces.

After 1988, the island of Hainan was separated from Guangdong province established as a separate province.

 

 

Pearl River Delta

Map of the Pearl River Delta (by Croquant)

The Pearl River Delta ( 珠江三角洲) in southern People's Republic of China is the low-lying areas alongside the Pearl River estuary where the Pearl River flows into the South China Sea. Since economic liberalisation was adopted by the Chinese government in the late 1970s, the delta has become one of the leading economic regions and a major manufacturing center of China. The Chinese government hopes that the manufacturing in Guangdong, combined with the financial and service economy and traditional western influence in Hong Kong, will create an economic gateway attracting foreign capital throughout mainland China.

The PRD covers nine prefectures of the province of Guangdong, namely Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Foshan, Huizhou, Jiangmen and Zhaoqing, and the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau.

 

The Pan-Pearl River Delta: An Emerging Regional Economy in a Globalizing China by Y.M. Yeung, Shen Jianfa

 

 

 

Down to Earth: The Territorial Bond in South China by David Faure (Editor), Helen F. Siu (Editor)

 

 

 

Cultural Heritage Management in China: Preserving the Cities of the Pearl River Delta by Du Cros/ Lee, Yok-Shiu F. Lee (Editor)

 

 

 

 

Guangzhou

Guangzhou (廣州) is the capital and a sub-provincial city of Guangdong Province in the southern part of the People's Republic of China. The city is also known by an alternative English name, Canton. It is a port on the Pearl River, navigable to the South China Sea, and is located about 120 km (75 miles) northwest of Hong Kong.

History: The first known city built at the site of Guangzhou was Panyu (蕃禺, later simplified to 番禺; Poon Yu in Cantonese) founded in 214 BC. The city has been continuously occupied since that time. Panyu was expanded when it became the capital of the Nanyue Kingdom (南越) in 206 BC.

Recent archaeological founding of her palace suggests that the city might have traded frequently with foreigners by the sea routes. The foreign trade continued through every following dynasty and the city remains a major international trading port to this day.

The Han Dynasty annexed Nanyue in 111 BC, and Panyu became a provincial capital and remains so until this day. In 226 AD, the city however became the seat of the Guang Prefecture (廣州; Guangzhou). Therefore, "Guangzhou" was the name of the prefecture, not of the city. However, people grew accustomed to calling the city Guangzhou, instead of Panyu.

Although the Chinese name of Guangzhou replaced Panyu as the name of the walled city, Panyu was still the name of the area surrounding the walled city until the end of Qing era.

Arab and Persian pirates sacked Guangzhou (known to them as Sin-Kalan) in AD 758, according to a local Guangzhou government report on October 30, 758, which corresponded to the day of Guisi (癸巳) of the ninth lunar month in the first year of the Qianyuan era of Emperor Suzong of the Tang Dynasty. The Arab historian Abu Zayd Hasan of Siraf reports that in 878 followers of the Chinese rebel leader Huang Chao besieged the city and massacred a large number of foreign merchants resident there.

From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou, some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions". Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu). Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".

During the Northern Song Dynasty, a celebrated poet called Su Shi (Shisu) visited Guangzhou's Baozhuangyan Temple and wrote the inscription "Liu Rong" (Six Banyan Trees) because of the six banyan trees he saw there. It has since been called the Temple of the 6 Banyan Trees.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive to the city by sea, establishing a monopoly on the external trade out of its harbor by 1511. They were later expelled from their settlements in Guangzhou (in Portuguese Cantão), but instead granted use of Macau as a trade base with the city in 1557. They would keep a near monopoly of foreign trade in the region until the arrival of the Dutch in the early seventeenth century.

After China claimed control of Taiwan in 1683, the Qing government became open to encouraging foreign trade. Guangzhou quickly emerged as one of the most adaptable ports for negotiating commerce and before long, many foreign ships were going there to procure cargos.

Portuguese in Macau, Spanish in Manila, and Armenians and Muslims from India were already actively trading in the port by the 1690s, when the French and English British East India Company's ships began frequenting the port through the Canton System.

Other companies were soon to follow: the Ostend General India company in 1717; Dutch East India Company in 1729; the first Danish ship in 1731, which was followed by a Danish Asiatic Company ship in 1734; the Swedish East India Company in 1732; followed by an occasional Prussian and Trieste Company ship; the Americans in 1784; and the first ships from Australia in 1788.

By the middle of the 18th century, Guangzhou had emerged as one of the world's great trading ports under the Thirteen Factories, which was a distinction it maintained until the outbreak of the Opium Wars in 1839 and the opening of other ports in China in 1842. The privilege during this period made Guangzhou one of the top 3 cities in the world.

Guangzhou's monopoly on English trade ended with the Treaty of Nanking, signed in 1842 to end the First Opium War between Britain and China. The treaty opened four new treaty ports, allowing British merchants to trade in Fuzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, and Shanghai in addition to Guangzhou.

 

Heaven is High and the Emperor Far Away: Merchants and Mandarins in Old Canton by Valery M. Garrett

 

 

 

The Canton Trade: Life and Enterprise on the China Coast, 1700-1845 by Paul A. Van Dyke

 

 

 

 

 

Taishan

Taishan (台山) is a coastal county-level city in Guangdong Province, China. The city is located in the Pearl River Delta, southwest of Jiangmen (to which it administratively belongs) and 140 kilometers west of Hong Kong, with a population of approximately 1 million. It contains 95 islands and islets, including the largest island in Guangdong, Shangchuan Island. It is one of four county-level cities in an area known as Sze Yup (四邑, four counties).

Because it is estimated that over 75% of all overseas Chinese in North America until the mid- to late-20th century claimed origin in Taishan, the city is also known as the "Home of Overseas Chinese." As late as 1988, those with ancestry from Taishan accounted for 70% of Chinese Americans.

Taishanese speak the Taishan dialect of Chinese. Before the 1980s, Taishanese was the predominant Chinese language spoken throughout North America's Chinatowns. It is the de facto language of Taishan.

 

Eighth Promise: An American Son's Tribute to His Toisanese Mother by William Poy Lee

 

 

 

 

 

Chaozhou

Chaozhou (潮州; literally "Tide Prefecture"; alternatively spelled Chiu Chow), also widely known by its Postal map spelling Teochew, is a city in eastern Guangdong province of the People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the south, Jieyang to the southwest, Meizhou to the northwest, the province of Fujian to the east, and the South China Sea to the southeast. It is administered as a prefecture-level city with a jurisdiction area of 3,614 square kilometers and a total population of 2,500,000. Chaozhou is part of the Chaoshan region.

 

 

Shenzhen

Shenzhen is a city in southern China's Guangdong province, situated immediately north of Hong Kong. Owing to China's economic liberalization from the policies of reformist leader Deng Xiaoping, the area became China's first - and ultimately most successful - Special Economic Zone.

Shenzhen's novel and modern cityscape is the result of the vibrant economy made possible by rapid foreign investment since the late 1970s, when it was a small fishing village. It is now reputedly one of the fastest growing cities in the world. Being southern China's major financial centre, Shenzhen is home to the Shenzhen Stock Exchange as well as the headquarters of numerous high-tech companies. Shenzhen is also the second busiest port in mainland China, ranking only after Shanghai.

 

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Silk Road

The Silk Road or Silk Route is an interconnected series of ancient trade routes connecting Chang'an (today's Xi'an) in China, with Asia Minor and the Mediterranean.

The heyday of the Silk Road corresponds to that of the Byzantine Empire in its west end, Sassanid Empire Period to Il Khanate Period in the Nile-Oxus section and Three Kingdoms to Yuan Dynasty in the Sinitic zone in its east end. Trade between East and West also developed on the sea, between Alexandria in Egypt and Guangzhou in China, fostering the expansion of Roman trading posts in India. Historians also talk of a "Porcelain Route" or "Silk Route" across the Indian Ocean. The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, the Silk Road sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars, Armenians, and Chinese.

 

 

Chinese Influences on Islamic Pottery

Chinese influences on Islamic pottery cover a period starting from at least the 8th century AD to the 19th century. This influence of Chinese ceramics has to be viewed in the broader context of the considerable importance of Chinese culture on Islamic arts in general.

Early contacts with Central Asia: Despite the distances involved, there is evidence of some contact between eastern and southwestern Asia from antiquity. Some very early Western influence on Chinese pottery seems to appear from the 3rd-4th century BC. An Eastern Zhou red earthenware bowl, decorated with slip and inlaid with glass paste, and now in the British Museum, is thought to have imitated metallic vessels, possibly of foreign origin. Foreign influence especially is thought to have encouraged the Eastern Zhou interest in glass decorations.

Contacts between China and Central Asia were formally opened from the 2nd to 1st century BC through the Silk Road. In the following centuries, a great cultural influx benefited China, embodied by the appearance in China of foreign art, new ideas and religions (especially Buddhism), and new lifestyles. Artistic influences combined a multiplicity of cultures which had intermixed along the Silk Road, especially Hellenistic, Egyptian, Indian and Central Asian cultures, displaying a strong cosmopolitanism.

Such mixed influences are especially visible in the earthenwares of Northern China in the 6th century, such as those of the Northern Qi (550-577) or the Northern Zhou (557-581). In that period, high quality high-fired earthenware starts to appear, called the "jeweled type", which incorporates lotuses from Buddhist art, as well as elements of Sasanian designs such as pearl roundels, lion masks or musicians and dancers. The best of these ceramics use bluish green, yellow or olive glazes.

China and the Islamic World: Direct contacts between the Muslim and Chinese worlds were marked by the Battle of Talas in 751 in Central Asia. Muslim communities are known to have been present in China as early as the 8th century AD, especially in commercial harbours such as Canton and Hangzhou.

From the 9th century onwards, Islamic merchants started to import Chinese ceramics, which were at the core of the Indian Ocean luxury trade at that time. These exotic objects were cherished in the Islamic world and also became an inspiration for local potters.

Archaeological finds of Chinese pottery in the Middle East go back to the 8th century, starting with Chinese pottery of the Tang period (618-907). Remains of Tang period (618-907) ceramics have been found in Samarra and Ctesiphon in present-day Iraq, as well as in Nishapur in present-day Iran. These include porcelaneous white wares from Northern Chinese kilns, celadon-glazed stoneware originating in the Yue kilns of Northern Zhejiang, and the splashed stoneware of Changsha kilns in Hunan Province.

Chinese pottery was the object of gift-making in Islamic lands: the Islamic writer Muhammad Ibn-al-Husain-Bahaki wrote in 1059 that Ali Ibn Isa, the governor of Khurasan, presented Harun al-Rashid, the Caliph, twenty pieces of Chinese imperial porcelain, the like of which had never been at a caliph's court before, in addition to 2,000 other pieces of porcelain".

Yue Ware: Yue ware originated in the Yue kilns of Northern Zhejiang, in the site of Jiyuan near Shaoxing, anciently called "Yuezhou" (越州). its names goes back to the Yue (state) of the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BC). Yue ware was first manufactured from the 2nd century AD, when it consisted in some very precise imitations of bronze vessels, many of which were found in tombs of the Nanjing region. After this initial phase, Yue ware evolved progressively into true ceramic form, and became a true medium of artistic expression. Production in Jiyuan stopped in the 6th century, but expanded to various areas of Zhejiang, especially around the shores of Shanglinhu in Yuyaoxian.

Yue ware was highly valued, and was used as tribute for the imperial court in northern China in the 9th century. Significantly, it was also used in China's most revered Famen Temple in Shaanxi Province. Yue ware was exported to the Middle East early on, and shards of Yue ware have been excavated in Samarra, Iraq, in an early example of Chinese influences on Islamic pottery, as well as to East Asia and South Asia as well as East Africa from the 8th to the 11th century.

Sancai Ware: Tang period earthenware shards with low-fired polychrome three-color sancai glazes from the 9th century were exported to Middle-Eastern countries such as Iraq and Egypt, and have been excavated in Samarra in present-day Iraq and in Nishapur in present-day Iran. These Chinese styles were soon adopted for local Middle-Eastern manufactures. Copies were made by Iraqi craftsmen as soon as the 9th century AD.

In order to imitate Chinese Sancai, lead glazes were used on top of vessels coated with white slip and a colorless glaze. The coloured lead glazes were then splashed on the surface, where they spread and mixed, according to the slipware technique.

Shapes were also imitated, such as the lobed dishes found in Chinese Tang ceramics and silverware which were reproduced in Iraq during the 9-10th century.

Conversely, numerous Central Asian and Persian influences were at work in the designs of Chinese sancai wares: pictures of Central Asian mounted warriors, scenes representing Central Asian musicians, vases in the shape of Middle-Eastern ewers.

White Ware: Soon after the sancai period, Chinese white ware ceramics also found their way to the Islamic world, and were immediately reproduced. The Chinese white ware was actually porcelain, invented in the 9th century, and used kaolin and high-temperature firing, but Islamic workshops were unable to duplicate its manufacture. Instead, they manufactured fine earthenware bowls with the desired shape, and covered them with a white glaze rendered opaque by the addition of tin, an early example of tin-glazing. The Chinese shapes were also reproduced, seemingly to pass for China-made wares.

In the 12th century, Islamic manufacturers further developed stone-paste techniques in order to obtain hard bodies approximating the hardness obtained by Chinese porcelain. This technique was used until the 18th century, when the Europeans discovered the Chinese technique for high-firing porcelain clays.

Celadon Ware: The Chinese fashion for turquoise, or celadon, ware was also transmitted to the Islamic world, where it gave rise to productions using turquoise glazing and fish motifs identical to the ones used in China.

Blue and White Ware: The technique of cobalt blue decorations on white background seems to have been invented in the Middle East in the 9th century through decorative experimentation on white ware. Cobalt blue used in this type of porcelain was imported as a raw material to China from mines in central Iran from the 9th century and the technique was fully transmitted to China in the 14th century. On some occasions, Chinese blue and white wares also incorporated Islamic designs, as in the case of some Mamluk brass works which were converted into blue and white Chinese porcelain designs. Chinese blue and white ware then became extremely popular in the Middle East, where both Islamic types and Chinese types coexisted.

From the 13th century, Chinese pictorial designs, such as flying cranes, dragons and lotus flowers also started to appear in the ceramic productions of the Near East, especially in Syria and Egypt.

 

 

Canton Porcelain (Collecting 17th-19th Century "BALLAST WARE" Chinese Canton Porcelain by Lorena Overstreet Allen)

Canton porcelains are Chinese ceramic wares made for export in the 18th to the 20th centuries. The wares were made, glazed and fired at Jingdezhen but decorated with enamels at Canton (Guangzhou) in southern China prior to export by sea through that port. Canton Famille rose in the 19th century was typically decorated with alternate panels of figures and birds, flowers and insects, predominantly in pink and green.

Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte are terms used to classify Chinese porcelain by its colour palette. Famille rose (also known as fencai or ruan cai, meaning 'soft colours', and later as yang cai, meaning 'foreign colours') was introduced during the reign of Kangxi (1654-1722), possibly around 1720. It used mainly pink or purple and remained popular throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries.

Famille rose enamel ware allows a greater range of colour and tone than was previously possible, enabling the depiction of more complex images, including flowers, figures and insects. It is made by drawing a sketch on the shaped clay, which is then covered with ‘glassy white’ (bo li bai), an opaque white enamel (lead arsenate), and painted in detail with the mixture of pigment and oil, before firing.

Blue & White: Chinese Porcelain Around the World by John Carswell

 

 

 

China for America: Export Porcelain of the 18th and 19th Centuries by Jonathan A. Goldstein

 

 

 

The Canton Famille Rose Porcelains: Chinese Export Porcelain in the 19th Century by John Quentin Feller

 

 

 

 

Shiwan animal figurine, Museum de Arte de Macau

Shiwan Ware was from kilns located in the Guangdong provincial city of Foshan. Area ceramic production experienced a long history by the late Ming period 1500s when ceramic artisans from perhaps Dehua and Jingdezhen relocated to the Shiwan area and expanded local production into a vigorous export related industry. Shiwan wares provide a contrast with more conservatively rendered Dehua efforts. Clay for the ware was provided not only from area preserves, but also from distant locations that could be variously mixed to provide a variety of textures and desired ceramic outcomes. The range could extend from a porcelain, that could rival Dehua in purity, to a rough stoneware. Shiwan ware was widely exported. Its glazing techniques directly influenced Japanese Shiga wares and others.

* History and Development of the Chinese Ceramic Captial - Shiwan, China by Sam Chan

Gathering of Earthly Gods: Shiwan Wares from the Collections of the International Shiwan Ceramics Association by Yanfang Huang

 

 

 

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Thirteen Factories

Painting of the factories in 1780 with flags of Denmark, Spain, US, Sweden, Britain, Holland

Thirteen Factories ( 十三行) is an area of Guangzhou, China where the first foreign trade was allowed in the 18th century since Hai jin. It is also referred to as the "Thirteen Hongs" or the "Canton Factories".

Factories were "foreigners quarters" outside the city walls in Guangzhou. These were business markets, not actual factories where goods were manufactured. The name came from the foreign agent term of "factors", who maintained offices or factories. Chinese citizens often referred to the factories as "Barbarian Houses".

In 1684, the Emperor Kangxi of the Qing allowed foreigners to trade with China in four cities, including Guangzhou. In 1686, Westerners were allowed to also live in the area of the factories in Canton, at the head of the Pearl River. In 1757, the Emperor Qianlong limited Westerners to the port of Canton, and no other area.

In 1793, attempts were made by King George III who sent representative Lord George Macartney to request that ports in northern China be opened to trade. Emperor Qianlong denied the request.

The Thirteen Factories gradually lost importance after the First Opium War, a conflict after China banned the import of British opium. The Qing court was defeated by Great Britain and forced to open five ports to foreigners and to cede Hong Kong to Great Britain. The Thirteen Factories was no longer the sole place for foreigners to trade and live in China.

The Hongs in Hong Kong that became major economic powerhouses beginning in the 1890s are usually credited to the British and other overseas merchants. Despite the origin of the name "Hong", the factories did not play a role in Hong Kong's economy in the 20th century.

The Western factors were allowed to occupy two- or three-story buildings, set back one hundred yards from the river. Each factory contained 3 or 4 houses. The warehouses occupied the first floors and elegant apartments were on the second and third floors of the houses. The square in front of the factories was fenced and reserved for foreigners. The streets immediately adjoining the factories were named Thirteen Factory Street, Old China Street, and Hog Lane. These streets were filled with retail stores selling a wide variety of Chinese goods.

The following are the structures of factory buildings and streets that make up the thirteen factories area. The list is in the order of which they are lined up. The names of the hong-merchants are Howqua, Mowqua, Puankhequa, Goqua, Fatqua, Kingqua, Sunshing, Mingqua, Saoqua and Punboqua.

 

Chinese Pinyin Names	English Names	Chinese Names
e-ho-hong	Factory of Justice and Peace	义和行（小溪馆）
paeon-ho-hong	Factory of Tranquillity	新英国馆（保和行）
	Hog lane	猪巷
fung-tae-hong	Chow-Chow Factory	炒炒馆（丰泰行、巴斯行）
bung-shan-hong	Old English Factory	旧英国馆（隆顺行）
suy-hang	Swedish Factory	瑞典行（瑞行）
ma-ying-hang	Imperial Factory	帝国馆（孖鹰行）
paon-shun-hang	Precious and Prosperous Factory	宝顺馆（宝顺行）
kwang-yuen-hang	American Factory	美国行（广源行）
	Old China street	老中国街
	French Factory	法兰西馆（高公行）
	Spanish Factory	西班牙馆（大吕宋行）
	Danish Factory	丹麦行

 

The emperor appointed an official called the hoppo, to take charge and collect taxes from the goods traded. The position also overlook whether the trades went accordingly. The hoppo was responsible for merchant relations on behalf of the Qing court. It was an important position since merchants were not allowed to communicate with the emperor directly.

Foreigners were also not allowed to learn Chinese by rule at the time. Though the British did have Robert Morrison as the translator. The four linguist representing the Chinese side include Atom, Achow, Atung and Akang.

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Sun Yat-sen

Dr. Sun Yat-sen (孫中山) was a Chinese revolutionary and political leader often referred to as the "Father of Modern China". Sun played an instrumental role in the eventual collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. He was the first provisional president when the Republic of China (ROC) was founded in 1912 and later co-founded the Kuomintang (KMT) where he served as its first leader. Sun was a uniting figure in post-Imperial China, and remains unique among 20th-century Chinese politicians for being widely revered in both Mainland China and Taiwan.

Although Sun is considered one of the greatest leaders of modern China, his political life was one of constant struggle and frequent exile. After the success of the revolution, he quickly fell out of power in the newly-founded Republic of China, and led successive revolutionary governments as a challenge to the warlords who controlled much of the nation. Sun did not live to see his party consolidate its power over the country. His party, which formed a fragile alliance with the Communists, split into two factions after his death. Sun's chief legacy resides in his developing a political philosophy known as the Three Principles of the People.

Sun Yat-sen was born on 12 November 1866 to a Hakka family in the village of Cuiheng, Xiangshan (later Zhongshan) county, Guangzhou prefecture, Guangdong province (26 km or 16 miles north of Macau), in the Empire of the Great Qing of China.

After receiving a few years of local school, at age thirteen, Sun went to live with his elder brother, Sun Mei, in Honolulu. Sun Mei, who was fifteen years Sun Yat-sen's senior, had emigrated to Hawaii as a laborer and had become a prosperous merchant. Though Sun Mei was not always supportive of Sun's later revolutionary activities, he supported his brother financially, allowing Sun to give up his professional career. Sun Yat-sen studied at the prestigious Iolani School where he learned English, mathematics and science. He became a citizen of the United States and was issued an American passport. It is unclear whether or not he maintained his original citizenship as a subject of the Qing empire.

During and after the Qing Dynasty rebellion, Sun was a leader within Tiandihui, a precursor to modern triad groups. Tiandihui provided much of Sun's funding. His protégé, Chiang Kai Shek, was also a member of Tiandihui .

The official history of the Kuomintang (and for that matter, the Communist Party of China) emphasizes Sun's role as the first provisional President, but many historians now question the importance of Sun's role in the 1911 revolution and point out that he had no direct role in the Wuchang uprising and was in fact out of the country at the time. In this interpretation, his naming as the first provisional President was precisely because he was a respected but rather unimportant figure and therefore served as an ideal compromise candidate between the revolutionaries and the conservative gentry.

However, Sun is credited for the funding of the revolutions and for keeping the spirit of revolution alive, even after a series of failed uprisings. Also, as mentioned, he successfully merged minor revolutionary groups to a single larger party, providing a better base for all those who shared the same ideals.

One of Sun's major legacies was his political philosophy, the Three Principles of the People (三民主義). These Principles included the principle of nationalism (民族), democracy (民權) and the People's Livelihood (民生). The Principles retained a place in the rhetoric of both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party with completely different interpretations. This difference in interpretation is due partly to the fact that Sun seemed to hold an ambiguous attitude to both capitalist and communist methods of development, as well as due to his untimely death, in 1925, before he had finished his now-famous lecture series on the Three Principles of the People.

After Sun's death, a power struggle between his young protégé Chiang Kai-shek and his old revolutionary comrade Wang Jingwei split the KMT. At stake in this struggle was the right to lay claim to Sun's ambiguous legacy. In 1927 Chiang Kai-shek married Soong May-ling, a sister of Sun's widow Soong Ching-ling, and subsequently he could claim to be a brother-in-law of Sun. When the Communists and the Kuomintang split in 1927, marking the start of the Chinese Civil War, each group claimed to be his true heirs, a conflict that continued through World War II.

The official veneration of Sun's memory, especially in the Kuomintang, was a virtual cult, which centered around his tomb in Nanking. His widow, Soong Ching-ling, sided with the Communists during the Chinese Civil War and served from 1949 to 1981 as Vice President (or Vice Chairwoman) of the People's Republic of China and as Honorary President shortly before her death in 1981.

Wives

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  Lu Muzhen (1867-1952), Sun's First wife from 1885 to 1915

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  Sun's second wife, Soong Ching-ling (1893-1981) with Sun in 1924

 

 

Hou Hsiao-Hsien

Hou Hsiao-Hsien (侯孝賢) (born April 8, 1947) is an award-winning film director and a leading figure of Taiwan's New Wave cinema movement.

A Hakka, Hou Hsiao-Hsien was born in Mei County, Guangdong province of China in 1947. He and his family fled the Chinese Civil War to Taiwan the following year. Hou was educated at the National Taiwan Academy of the Arts.

Hou generally makes rigorously minimalist dramas dealing with the upheavals of the Taiwanese (and occasionally larger Chinese) history of the past century by viewing its impacts on individuals or small groups of characters. A City of Sadness (1989), for example, portrays a family caught in conflicts between the local Taiwanese and the newly arrived Chinese Nationalist government after World War II. It was groundbreaking for broaching this long-taboo subject and became a major success despite its seemingly uncommercial nature.

His storytelling is elliptical and his style marked by extreme long takes with minimal camera movement but intricate choreography of actors and space within the frame. He uses extensive improvisation to arrive at the final shape of his scenes and the low-key, naturalistic acting of his performers. His compositons are decentered, and links between shots do not adhere to an obvious temporal or causal narrative logic. Without abandoning his famous austerity, his imagery has developed a sensual beauty during the 1990s, partly under the influence of his collaboration with cinematographer Mark Lee Ping-Bin. Hou's consistent screenwriting collaborator since the mid-1980s has been the renowned author Chu Tien-Wen, a collaboration that began with the screenplay for Chen Kunhou's 1983 film, Growing Up. He has also cast revered puppeteer Li Tian-lu as an actor in several of his movies, most notably The Puppetmaster (1993), which is based on Li's life.

Hou's films have been awarded prizes from prestigious international festivals such as the Venice Film Festival, Berlin Film Festival, Hawaii International Film Festival and the Nantes Three Continents Festival. Six of his films to date have been nominated for the Palme d'Or (best film award) at the Cannes Film Festival, though the prize has so far eluded him. Hou was voted "Director of the Decade" for the 1990s in a poll of American and international critics put together by The Village Voice and Film Comment. Despite such acclaim, his work remains rarely distributed in the West outside of the film festival circuit.

He directed the Japanese film Café Lumière (2003) for the Shochiku studio as an homage to Yasujiro Ozu; the film premiered at a festival commemorating the centenary of Ozu's birth. The film deals with themes reminiscent of Ozu - tensions between parents and children and between tradition and modernity - in Hou's typically indirect manner. In 2005 his film Three Times - which features three stories of love set in 1911, 1966 and 2005 using the same actors - was the latest to be nominated for a Palme d'Or; it received glowing reviews instead.

Hou has also had some acting experience, appearing as the lead in fellow Taiwanese New Wave auteur Edward Yang's 1984 film, Taipei Story. Hou starred as Lung, a former Little-League baseball star who is stuck operating an old-style fabric business, longing for his past days of glory. Lung becomes alienated from his girlfriend and tries to find his way in the city of Taipei.

Hou is also a singer having contributed two songs to the 1992 soundtrack of Dust of Angels, a movie he also produced.

In August 2006 Hou embarked on his first Western project. Filmed and financed entirely in France, Flight of the Red Balloon (2006) is the story of a French family as seen through the eyes of a Chinese student. The film is the first part in a series of films sponsored by the Musee d'Orsay and stars Juliette Binoche.

 

 

Edward Yang

Edward Yang (楊德昌; November 6, 1947 – June 29, 2007), along with Hou Hsiao-Hsien and Tsai Ming Liang, was one of the leading filmmakers of the Taiwanese New Wave and Taiwanese Cinema. He won the Best Director Award at Cannes for his 2000 film Yi Yi ("A One and a Two").

廣東梅縣（現梅州）人，生於上海，成長於台北，1965年畢業於台北建國中學，1969年畢業於新竹國立交通大學控制工程系（今電機與控制工程學系）。後赴美國，1974年在佛羅里達大學獲電機工程碩士。之後南加州大學學習研究電影一年，楊德昌後來以電腦工程師身份往美國西雅圖華盛頓大學（University of Washington, Seattle，簡稱UW）從事計算機微處理器與軟體設計，並在那裡工作了7年。在西雅圖，楊德昌從德國新電影得到很大啟示——尤其德國新電影四傑之一韋納·荷索的《阿基爾，上帝的憤怒》，因為他證明精彩的電影可以一個人做而不必倚賴巨大投資，或者更直觀的說讓楊德昌明白了電影原來可以這樣拍。

1981年回到台灣，與詹宏志、余為彥、徐克等人參與獨立製作《1905年的冬天》，擔任編劇及演員，此片後來入選坎城影展「一種注目」單元。隨後參加張艾嘉製作的台視節目「十一個女人」系列劇集，導演其中「浮萍」單元，頗受好評。1982年，被中影啟用為導演，與柯一正、張毅、陶德辰合拍《光陰的故事》，由於本片在各方面的創新嘗試，讓他與侯孝賢齊名，被公認為「台灣新電影」重要先驅之一。1983年創作其第一部劇情長片《海灘的一天》，以複雜的敘事結構，討論社會轉型中的女性議題及轉型後的都會空間對人的影響，引起諸多討論，也被認為是引進台灣新電影最重要的一部電影之一，雖然片長遠超過傳統電影的放映時間（二小時四十七分），但是在楊德昌的堅持下，原片一刀未剪，創下先例。

1985年的《青梅竹馬》，探討台灣社會轉型過程中的男女心理。1986年拍攝《恐怖份子》，以其特殊的敘事風格，及對現代都市中人們深刻的觀察，獲得國際許多獎項的肯定。1989年成立「楊德昌電影公司」，1991年拍攝《牯嶺街少年殺人事件》引起廣大的討論，楊德昌更被日本「電影旬報」選為年度電影獎的最佳外國導演。1993年將電影公司更名為「原子電影公司」，1994年的《獨立時代》獲得第三十一屆金馬獎最佳原著劇本獎。1996年拍攝《麻將》，獲得柏林影展評審團特別獎。2000年的《一一》，承續以往擅長的多條敘述線、理性思辯的敘述風格，深刻檢視當代的台北都會，更為他奪得至高榮譽的坎城影展最佳導演獎，成為目前為止，唯一獲得這項殊榮的台灣籍導演。

楊德昌的電影主要描繪台北城市在生活型態轉變下，華人中產階級的感情生活，運鏡筆觸細膩，與侯孝賢的鄉土電影形成鮮明對比。楊德昌與台灣歌手蔡琴曾有過十年婚姻，但由於楊德昌外遇，結果以離婚收場。第二任妻子是楊德昌的外遇對象，也就是鋼琴家彭鎧立，兩人育有一子。楊德昌和病魔對抗的最後一段日子，其實一直沒有放棄創作，除了和影星成龍合作的動畫「追風」沒機會完成，楊德昌忍著病痛，又構思出一部動畫新片，片名叫做「小朋友」，他在過世前，將手稿寄給好友張毅，妻子彭鎧立也向張毅透露，楊德昌過世前，手還握著畫筆。2007年6月29日下午楊德昌（美西時間）因結腸癌於美國洛杉磯比佛利山莊去世，享年59歲。

好友張毅集結兩岸動畫人才，成立動畫工作室A-hha，致力完成楊德昌的遺作，《長江動物園》，《小朋友》，及《追風》。

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