Chief of Wanshan Community in the Xia San Community Group of Rukai

* 魯凱族網路社群---台灣原住民數位博物館--部落網站社群系統

* A Visit to Maolin Fascinating Rukai Aboriginal Homeland by Cliff Vost

RUKAI

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Rukai (魯凱族) is one tribe of Taiwanese aborigines. They live in the mountains of southern Taiwan. In the year 2000 the Rukai numbered 12,084. This was approximately 3% of Taiwan's total indigenous population, making them the fifth-largest tribal group.

Rukai is the mother tongue of the Rukai, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian languages language family.

Rukai Distribution Map

(Map from Digital Museum of Taiwan Indigeneous Peoples)

* To Know the Rukai Tribe by the Web of Ping Tung Aboriginals

The Rukai tribe is similar with the Paiwan tribe in terms of social organization. In the Japanese colonial time, it had once be categories in the Paiwan group.
　 Yet there are at least some following variances.

The Rukai tribe has no Five-year Festival, so popular in the Paiwan tribe.
The Rukai tribe is a paternal society, the eldest son has inherence of family property; yet the Paiwan tribe is of a dual lines, in which the eldest child has inherence.
The Rukai tribe is a society that man dominates over woman, and the Paiwan tribe is a society of sex equality.
Aristocrats of the Paiwan tribe have centralized power and influence, desirous of even　greater power. Aristocrats of the Paiwan tribe share their power and influence to lineal or　collateral relatives, and power are scatter and weaken.
The funeral and burial of the Rukai tribe is arranged with an individual tomb and the Paiwan tribe’s is arranged in a family common tomb.
The Rukai tribe is buried of sideways, and the Paiwan tribe is buried of limb-bent.
The lily of the Rukai tribe symbolizes the purity of the girl and good hurting of the man.
If they have had sex relations, the girl has no right to wear lily. Lily should be side worn,only can a chief wear in a way that flower facing front. Besides lily, the tribe people also　use paper-cut petals to put on the forehead, another expression of a man-made lily.

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Classification of Formosan Languages

The seminal article in the classification of Formosan—and, by extension, the top-level structure of Austronesian—is Blust (1999). Prominent Formosanists (linguists who specialize in Formosan languages) take issue with some of its details, but it remains the point of reference for current linguistic analyses, and is shown below. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are frequently included within Blust's Eastern Formosan branch due to their shared leveling of proto-Austronesian *t, *C to /t/ and *n, *N to /n/, their shift of *S to /h/, and vocabulary such as *lima "five" which are not attested in other Formosan languages.

In addition to Malayo-Polynesian, thirteen Formosan families are broadly accepted. Debate centers primarily around the relationships between these families. Two classifications are presented here, Blust (1999), who links two families into a Western Plains group, two more in a Northwestern Formosan group, and three into an Eastern Formosan group, and the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (2008), which links five families into a Northern Formosan group, two in a Tsouic group, and links Malayo-Polynesian with Paiwan in a Paiwanic group.

Other studies have presented phonological evidence for a reduced Paiwanic family of Paiwanic, Puyuma, Bunun, Amis, and Malayo-Polynesian, but this is not reflected in vocabulary. The Eastern Formosan peoples Basay, Kavalan, and Amis share a homeland motif that has them coming originally from an island called Sinasay or Sanasay (Li 2004). The Amis, in particular, maintain that they came from the east, and were treated by the Puyuma, amongst whom they settled, as a subservient group (Taylor 1888).

Blust (1999)

Tsouic
- Tsou
- Saaroa
- Kanakanabu
Western Plains
- Thao (AKA Sao. Brawbaw, Shtafari dialects)
- Central Western Plains
  - Babuza (Taokas, Poavosa dialects)
  - Popora-Hoanya (Popora, Hoanya dialects)
Northwest Formosan
- Saisiyat (Taai, Tungho dialects)
- Pazeh (AKA Kulun)
Atayalic
- Atayal
- Seediq (AKA Truku, Taroko)
East Formosan
- Northern (Kavalanic)
  - Basai (Trobiawan, Linaw-Qauqaul dialects)
  - Kavalan
  - Ketagalan
- Central (Ami)
  - Nataoran (North Amis)
  - Amis
- Siraya
- Malayo-Polynesian
Bunun
Rukai (Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects are divergent)
Puyuma
Paiwan (southern tip of Formosa)

Li (2008)

Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization, per Li (2008). The three languages (Bunun, Puyuma, Paiwan) may form a Southern Formosan branch, but this is uncertain.

This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. Li proposes a Proto-Formosan (F0) ancestor and equates it with Proto-Austronesian (PAN), following the model in Starosta (1995). Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent, although the position of Rukai is highly controversial.

F0: Formosan = Austronesian
- Rukai
  - Mantauran
  - Maga-Tona, Budai-Labuan-Taromak
- F1
  - Central (Tsouic)
    - Tsou
    - Southern Tsouic
      - Saaroa
      - Kanakanabu
  - F2
    - Northern Formosan
      - Northwestern (Plains)
        
        Saisiyat–Kulon–Pazeh
        
        Western
        
        Thao
        
        West Coast (Popora–Hoanya–Babuza–Taokas)
      - Atayalic
        
        Squliq Atayal
        
        Ts'ole' Atayal (= C'uli')
        
        Seediq
    - East Formosan
      - Kavalan–Basay
      - Siraya–Amis
    - ? Southern [uncertain]
      - Bunun
        
        Isbukun
        
        Northern and Central (Takitudu and Takbanuao)
      - Paiwan–Puyuma [uncertain]

Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (2008)

Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization, per the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (Greenhill, Blust & Gray 2008).

This investigation keeps Li's Northern Formosan, but breaks up Blust's Eastern Formosan, and suggests Paiwan may be the closest to Malayo-Polynesian. It also unites Tsouic and Rukai, the two most divergent languages in Li.

* Kavalanic (This is an obvious, low-level grouping)

Basay (Trobiawan, Linaw-Qauqaut dialects)
Kavalan
Ketagalan

* Northern Formosan (These groups are linked with an estimated 97% probability)

Thao (AKA Sao. Brawbaw, Shtafari dialects)
Western Plains
- Babuza (AKA Favorlang. Taokas, Poavosa dialects)
- Popora-Hoanya (Popora, Hoanya dialects)
Saisiyat (Taai, Tungho dialects)
Pazeh (AKA Kulun)
Atayalic
- Atayal (Squliq, C’uli’)
- Seediq (AKA Truku, Taroko)

* Ami (Another low-level grouping)

Sakizaya
Nataoran (North Amis)
Amis

* Bunun

Bunun

* Tsou-Rukai (Tsou and Rukai are connected with moderate confidence, estimated at 85% probability.)

Tsouic
- Tsou
- Saaroa
- Kanakanabu
Rukai (Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects are divergent)

* Siraya

Siraya (Taivoan, Makatao dialects)

* Puyuma

Puyuma

* Paiwanic (Malayo-Polynesian and Paiwan are linked with a low level of confidence (74%).)

Paiwan (southern tip of Formosa)
Malayo-Polynesian

Sagart (2004)

Sino-Austronesian is a proposed language family. Its original version was first presented by Laurent Sagart in the early 1990s. Using reconstructions of the Old Chinese language, Sagart argued that the Austronesian languages were related to the Sinitic languages both lexically and morphologically. Additionally, the Tai-Kadai languages were placed internally within the Austronesian family as a sister branch of Malayo-Polynesian. He also considers the Austro-Asiatic language family to be a likely candidate for inclusion, since if the Austric hypothesis proves to be true, Austro-Asiatic would follow along with the Tai-Kadai branch's inclusion in Sino-Austronesian.

If compared with genetic evidence, the Sino-Austronesian family would correspond to Haplogroup O, a paternally-transmitted human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Laurent Sagart has also shown that his Sino-Austronesian proposal does not contradict genetic studies in any major way.

Related proposals include Austric (Wilhelm Schmidt), Austro-Tai (Paul K. Benedict), and Dené-Caucasian (Sergei Starostin).

Sino-Austronesian (Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian)
- Tibeto-Burman ("Sino-Tibetan languages")
- Austronesian
  - Luilang, Pazeh, Saisiat
  - Pituish
    - Atayalic (Thao, Favorlang, Taokas, Papora, Hoanya)
    - Enemish
      - Siraya
      - Walu-Siwaish
        
        Tsouic (Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma, Amis, Bunun)
        
        Muish
        
        Northeastern Formosan (Ketagalan, Kavalan, etc.)
        
        Daic or Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai)
        
        Malayo-Polynesian

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent SagartEnriched Higher An Phylogeny Based on Basic-Lexical and Morphological Innovations (gray area at bottom)

Taxon names are in bold type. To the exception of the NE-Formosan languages Kavalan and Ketagalan, no claim is made that the languages whose names are in the same column (for instance Luilang, Pazeh and Saisiat) form a taxon. Dotted arrows indicate an oversea migration. 'FATK' = Formosan Ancestor of Tai-Kadai; 'FAMP' = 'Formosan Ancestor of Malayo-Polynesian'.

Ross (2009)

(Chart from Linguistic Evidence for Austronesian Homeland and Dispersal by Paul Jen-kuei Li)

In 2009, Malcolm Ross proposed a new classification of the Austronesian language family based on morphological evidence from various Formosan languages. He proposed that since the current reconstructions for Proto-Austronesian actually correspond to an intermediate stage, and they would actually correspond to "Proto-Nuclear Austronesian." Notably, Ross' classification does not support the unity of the Tsouic languages, instead considering the Southern Tsouic languages of Kanakanavu and Saaroa to be a separate subgroup. This would support Chang's (2006) claim that Tsouic is not a valid subgroup.

Austronesian (Ross 2009)
- Puyuma
- Rukai
- Tsou
- Nuclear Austronesian
  - Kanakanavu and Saaroa
  - Northwest Formosan: Saisiyat, Kulon-Pazih
  - Atayalic: Atayal, Seediq
  - Western Plains: Thao, Taokas, Favorlang-Babuza, Papora, Hoanya
  - Bunun
  - Paiwan
  - East Formosan: Basay-Trobiawan, Kavalan, Amis, Siraya
  - Malayo-Polynesian: all extra-Formosan languages, including Yami (Tao)

台灣南島語言

台灣南島語言（Formosan）或稱高山語、台灣原住民族語，在語言分類上是屬於南島語系台灣南島語族，一共有23個語言，可以再細分成「泰雅語群」、「排灣語群」、以及「鄒語群」等三個語群。使用人口約17萬人。

除了世居蘭嶼的達悟族所使用的達悟語（雅美語）是屬於分布於呂宋海峽諸島群的南島語系馬來-玻里尼西亞語族巴丹語群（Batanic / Bashiic）外，其他台灣原住民族所使用的語言都屬於南島語系台灣南島語言。台灣南島語言在整個南島語系中佔著極為特殊的地位，古南島語中所出現的動、植物群，常見於台灣島內不同的地形及氣候區內，這些證據顯示台灣南島語言十分古老。以這些語言研究上的證據作為基礎，甚至有相當多的語言學家相信，台灣是整個南島民族的「祖居地」（homeland）之一。

「台灣南島語言」在南島語族的分類位置

相關的語言學者對於台灣南島語言在整個南島語族的分類位置，有以下幾種不同的看法：

將「台灣南島語言」視為是「西部南島語」的一支: 傳統上，語言學者依照所謂的「華理士分界線」（the Wallace line）將南島語族分成兩大類：東部南島語（Oceanic，指大洋洲的南島語）以及西部南島語（Hesperonesian，指非大洋洲的南島語）。戴恩（Dyen 1963）和土田滋（Tsuchida 1976）都認為台灣南島語言跟西部南島語比較接近，因此只是西部南島語群的一個分支，並無特殊的地位。這是代表傳統的分類法。

將「台灣南島語言」視為是「北部南島語」:奧德裏庫（Haudricourt 1965）則把台灣南島語與東部南島語、西部南島語三分而立，並稱台灣南島語為北部南島語。

將「台灣南島語言」視為是南島語系的第一分支: 達爾（Dahl 1976）認為台灣南島語保存了最多古南島語（Proto-Austronesian）的特徵，應該被視為是整個南島語族的第一分支。在這個基礎上，白樂思（Blust 1982）更進一步把南島語族分為四個分支：泰雅群、鄒語群、排灣群、以及馬來亞玻里尼西亞群。在超過1200種的南島語族語言當中，數量上只有20幾種的台灣南島語竟然被劃分成三個不同的語群，佔了四個南島語群當中的三個，其在南島語系中的重要地位自然不言可喻。

也是基於同樣的考慮，有些學者則將南島語系分成兩大部分，一部份是台灣南島語群，另一部份則是馬來亞-玻里尼西亞語群，這也是Ethnologue: Languages of the World（2004）目前所採取的分類方式。在該語言資料庫所收集的1262個南島語系語言當中，這些語言被分成兩大類，其中23個屬於台灣南島語的語言被歸類為「台灣南島語族」（Formosan），另外1239個其他的不同語言則被歸類為「馬來亞-玻里尼西亞語族」（Malayo-Polynesian）。

綜論: 事實上，愈來愈多的南島語言學者承認台灣南島語的重要性。就目前的語言學研究而言，台灣至少是最古老的南島民族居住地之一，甚至極可能就是古南島民族的發源地（參見Blust 1985；Bellwood 1991）。在以下的討論中，我們將依照Ethnologue: Languages of the World（2005b）的報告，將被歸類為「台灣南島語族」的台灣南島語再細分成三個語群：泰雅語群、排灣語群、以及鄒語群。

「台灣南島語言」分類系譜

台灣南島語言共有23個，其中2個被歸為泰雅語群，17個被歸為排灣語群，4個被歸為鄒語群。未列入不屬於台灣南島語言的達悟語。

2009年，根據聯合國教科文組織報告，馬賽語、凱達格蘭語等7種語言已被認定流失；另外，噶瑪蘭語、貓霧捒語、邵語等7種語言被評為極度危急、賽夏語為嚴重危險，而泰雅語、卑南語、布農語等9種語言則為脆弱等級。

泰雅語群 (Atayalic) (2)
- 泰雅語 (Atayal)
- 賽德克語 (Seediq)
排灣語群 (Paiwanic) (21)
- 阿美語 ('Amis, Pangcah)
  - 荳蘭阿美語（'Amis, Nataoran）
- 布農語 (Bunun)
- 巴布薩語 (Babuza)(貓霧捒)
  - 虎尾壟語(Favorlang)
- 噶瑪蘭語 (Kebalan)
- 猴猴語(Qauqaut)
- 西拉雅語 (Siraiya)
  - 大滿語 (Taivuan)(四社熟番)
  - 馬卡道語 (Makatau)
- 洪雅語 (Honya)
- 凱達格蘭語 (Ketangalan)
  - 巴賽語 (Basay)
  - 雷朗語(Luilang)
- 龜崙語(Kulon)
- 賽夏語 (Saisiyat)
- 道卡斯語 (Taokas)
- 巴布拉語 (Papora,Papura; 干仔轄(Camachat; 巴布拉語))
- 排灣語 (Paiwan)
- 卑南語 (Pyuma/普優瑪)
- 巴宰語 (Pazih, Pazeh)
  - 噶哈巫語(Kaxabu, Kahabu)(眉溪四庄)
- 邵語 (Thao)
鄒語群 (Tsouic) (4)
- 魯凱語 (Rukai)
- 北鄒語群 (Northern) (1)
  - 鄒語 (Tsou,Cou)
- 南鄒語群 (Southern) (2)
  - 卡那卡那富語(Kanakanavu)
  - 沙阿魯阿語(Saaroa)

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Formosan Clouded Leopard

The Formosan Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa brachyura) is a subspecies of Clouded Leopard that was endemic to the island of Taiwan and is now believed to be extinct. Its tail is slightly shorter than that of other subspecies of Clouded Leopard.

The Formosan Clouded Leopard was the second-largest native animal on Taiwan, after the Formosan Black Bear. After extensive loggings at its natural habitat, the leopards were forced to retreat into the Jade Mountain and Dawu Mountain. After the 1980s, there have been no sightings of this animal.

The Rukai Taiwanese aborigines believed that their ancestors transformed from these leopards.

Taiwanese Aboriginal Male Wearing a Leopard Fur

(Image from zh.wikipedia.org:)

Taiwanese Aboriginal male wearing a leopard fur (presumably of Neofelis nebulosa brachyurus - Formosan Clouded Leopard, 台灣雲豹), undated (but most likely around 1900, when Torii was in Taiwan; anthropologist Torii Ryūzō 1870-1953). Man's tribal affiliation unknown. However, his facial features and hair style resemble those of people also shown wearing a similar fur, who are identified as Rukai 魯凱族.

* Rukai Tribe: People of the cloud leopard by culture.tw

Excerpt: The traditional home of the Rukai tribe is considered to be Kochapongane, also known as Old Haocha, which is located in the southern Taiwan county of Pingtung. The Rukai refer to themselves as the people of the cloud leopard. According to tribal legend, there were two brothers who were the leaders of the tribe. As the tribe grew in numbers, they became concerned that the land upon which they were living would soon become insufficient. They decided to seek out a new living space, with the help of their trusty hunting companion, a cloud leopard. The leopard led them to the banks of a small clear lake in a beautiful valley and this became Old Haocha Village. Today, Old Haocha maintains a significant collection of traditional slate homes. This is because there are no roads to Old Haocha. The nearest one requires a walk of a few hours. Thus, this village does not see many visitors. A large proportion of its residents have also left, as the village's location made it difficult to find employment, health care, study and income-earning opportunities.

* Rukai Tribe by Taiwan Indigeneous Culture Park

Attire: The Rukai dress in splendid clothing. Attire reflects the hierarchical system of the Rukai. The clear distinction between the noble and the common features on their attire. Leopard teeth head dress, leopard skin vest, and precious glass beads, eagle feathers only belong to the higher ranking nobles whereas one hundred pace snake, sun, head, and pottery urns belong to the chief. Yet the common can get the permission of using these features by offering to the chief. Currently, there is no distinctive hierarchy between the nobles and the common. Hence, the clothing pattern indicates no distinction between the noble and the common.

A Rukai Girl with Leopard Teeth Head Dress by Chang Yi-Hsing (張義雄), 1957

(Image from Digital Taiwan - Culture)

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Lilium formosanum

* Four Types of Native Lilies Found in Taiwan by Taiwan.com.au

Excerpt: What is commonly referred to as the Wild Lily is a native lily to Taiwan. Formally known as the Lilium formosanum, it can be seen throughout the island. Meanwhile, the Lilium longiflorum Thunb, is mostly cultivated by people, which has contributed to the revival of this type of lily. Then there is the Brilliant Lily, which has the loveliest colors of all the lilies. Finally, there is the Lilium collosum, which has lovely yellow blossoms and is extremely rare to see in the wild.

The native lilies of Taiwan can be found from areas around the coastline all the way up to the high mountains. The Lilium formosanum (or Wild Lily), in particular, has been planted in many areas for many years. This type of lily generally blooms between April and July, with flowers that are white and emit a very sweet scent. The floral envelope features a reddish brown color, with a pale green in the center of the flower.

Rukai Mural in Wutai (霧台), Pingtung

(Image from Rukai Village Popular Tourist Destination by Rita Fang)

* Rukai Tribe by Taiwan Indigeneous Culture Park

Decoration with Lily Flower: Lily flower is well intertwined with the legendary origins of the Rukai ancestors, representing a holy place. In the lily blossom season, any woman can wear lily flower. Yet a red goldilocks with the bunch of lily flowers are seen as complete lily flower decoration, worn only at the wedding or engagement ceremony. In addition, it can only be worn after proper flower purchasing ritual.

Flower purchasing ritual plays an important part of the Rukai women. If economy permits, the parents of single women would often choose dates to slaughter pigs, make rice wine, and bake millet cakes to offer to the tribal chief to obtain rights to purchase flowers, known as Kialidao.

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Hundred-Pacer Snake

Deinagkistrodon (百步蛇/尖吻蝮; Common names: sharp-nosed viper, snorkel viper, hundred pacer, Chinese moccasinis) a monotypic genus created for a venomous pitviper species, D. acutus, found in Southeast Asia. No subspecies are currently recognized.

Found on forested mountain slopes, rock-strewn hillsides and brushy valleys. Occurs at elevations between 100 m and 1,400 m.

Dangerous animals often have exaggerated reputations and this species is no exception. The popular name "hundred pacer" refers to a local belief that, after being bitten, the victim will only be able to walk 100 paces before expiring. In areas where the snake is regarded as even more venomous, it has been called the "fifty pacer." Nevertheless, this species is considered dangerous, and fatalities are not unusual. An antivenin is produced in Taiwan.

The snake is also sold as a meal in some Taiwanese restaurants, served with the venom as a drink, pills floating in both the drink and in the snake. The pills are said to counteract the venom.

According to the US Armed Forces Pest Managent Board, the venom is a potent hemotoxin that is strongly hemorrhagic. Bite symptoms include severe local pain and bleeding that may begin almost immediately. This is followed by considerable swelling, blistering, necrosis, and ulceration. Systemic symptoms, which often include heart palpitations, may occur suddenly and relatively soon after the bite

尖吻蝮在台灣的排灣族有著特殊的圖騰意義，牠們被排灣族人奉為祖先及守護者，也是這個民族雕刻成品中的常見物種，往往具備代表整個民族的高尚神格。

另外，在一些台灣餐廳裡，有售賣以「百步蛇」為主要烹調材料的食物。他們把尖吻蝮肉製成各式食品，並以少量蛇毒製成飲料，另一方面又將抗蛇毒的藥丸放在蛇肉及蛇汁中，讓客人進食。

* The Rukai: Origin Myths by World Summit of Indigeneous Cultures

Excerpt: The Rukai have several different stories to explain the origins of their own tribe....

The legend says that the ancestors of the Rukai lived in the dense woods around the Ghost Lakes, and made a pact with the leader of the local Hundred-Pacer Snake tribe to live next to each other peacefully. To show their sincerity, the Rukai carved the Hundred-Pacer Snake totem into the ancestral pole in front of their doors so that future generations would continue to revere the totem and honor the pact. In exchange, the Hundred-Pacer Snake tribe granted the Rukai access to the inexhaustible water resources of the Ghost Lakes.

Rukai Carved Wooden Statues at Da'nan

(Image from The Gerald Warner Taiwan Image Collection)

Two large wood statues of male figurines with snake-motif head-dresses. A row of clapper-less bells are also visible, attached to the wall. Chen (1961, plate 66) has a very similar photo, which he dates at approximately 1929 and places in Da'nan 大南社 village. Chen identifies the bells as Rukai 魯凱族 ""jingling 警鈴"" (lit. warning bells). These bells are also known as ""taurin."" Ide (1937) describes this setting as a youth association hall, also placing it in Da'nan village, Taidong prefecture (p.192). Warner has misidentified this Rukai village as "Paiwan" on the back of his card.

Rukai Ancestor Panel

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

On the head of the ancestor, a double headed snake motive symbolizing the value and a double eagle feathers ornament meaning that this ancestor is high chief. Under his feet, a muntjac.

Rukai Box for Divination Instruments

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

That's in this kind of box that the shamans were putting their divination tools, with herbs and medications. The principal motif is made of two faces over a snake whose only half of the body is shown

Ama: Rukai Woodcarver

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Rukai Stone House

(Photo by Bureau of Tourism Kaohsiung County)

* Rukai Tribe by Taiwan Indigeneous Culture Park

Excerpt: The Rukai is noted for their stone-slab houses. This type of house was built by first digging out a dustpan-shaped depression in a gentle slope, and then piling up small pieces of stone to make the rear and side walls. The front wall was built using large stone slabs. Two diagonal supports under the front eves kept the front wall from toppling forward. The back wall was supported by the earth behind it so it too was kept form falling over. Although this kind of dwelling could withstand the strongest typhoon, it might be destroyed by an earthquake. The double-sloping roof was covered with stone slabs, and these slabs were likely to slide off in a major earthquake. Some of these stone houses were built in the shape of an arrowhead, and were moderately deep from front to back. The houses of the nobility were as wide as ten meters or more, and the eaves were one and half meters high. Because this is about as high as a person’s chest, people wishing to enter the house had to bend over to go in. There is a sculpture carved along and under the roof of their slates, making their house mysterious and beautiful.

A Rukai Chief

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

The frontyard of the chief house for the Rukai and the Paiwan had a very important role as it was used as a place to meet. Skull racks were also not far away to display the trophies from head-hunting

Rukai Villagers

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

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Dutch Formosa

Coat of Arms of the Dutch East India Company

Dutch Formosa refers to the period of colonial Dutch government on Formosa (now known as Taiwan), lasting from 1624 to 1662. In the context of the Age of Discovery the Dutch East India Company established its presence on Taiwan to trade with China and Japan, and also to interdict Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonial activities in East Asia.

One of the key pillars of the Dutch colonial era was conversion of the natives to Christianity. From the descriptions of the early missionaries, the native religion was animist in nature, in one case presided over by priestesses called Inibs.

The missionaries were also responsible for setting up schools in the villages under Dutch control, teaching not only the religion of the colonists but also other skills such as reading and writing. Prior to Dutch arrival the native inhabitants did not use writing, and the missionaries created a number of romanization schemes for the various Formosan languages. Experiments were made with teaching native children the Dutch language, however these were abandoned fairly rapidly after they failed to produce good results. At least one Formosan received an education in the Netherlands; he eventually married a Dutch woman and was apparently well integrated into Dutch society.

Today, Dutch legacy in Taiwan is visible in Anping District of Tainan City where the remains of their Castle Zeelandia are preserved, in Tainan City itself where their Fort Provintia is still the main structure of what is now called Red-topped Tower, and finally in Tamsui where Fort Anthonio (part of the Fort San Domingo museum complex) still stands as the best preserved Redoubt (minor fort) of the Dutch East India Company anywhere in the world.

* Dutch Formosa

* Taiwanese Aborigines: The European period

Goedhart, his wife and Rukai elders touch the tribe's sacred reretan. (CNA)

* A Journey into the Indigenous Heartland by Ellen Ko

Excerpt: According to Great Chieftain Queiyi, more than 100 years ago, a man of Dutch blood married a Rukai princess and became leader of the tribe. Known as "Mumu Dakanow," which translates as "grandfather Dakanow," he was regaled by the Rukai for his wise and benevolent leadership. In fact, tribal elders can still cite many of his heroic deeds today. "He fed the hungry, protected the weak, and took everyone under his wing," Queiyi said.

Goedhart, who over the past few years has traveled the island studying aboriginal culture and searching for vestigial traces of Dutch colonial rule (1624-1662), was overjoyed to accept Ullun's invitation to become an honorary Rukai. Excited to learn of blood relations between the two peoples, he explained that as a result of intermarriage during the Dutch colonial period in Taiwan, the Rukai, and Tsou tribe in central Taiwan--who number around 10,000 and 7,000 respectively--are believed to be the island's two indigenous groups with the closest ties to the Dutch.

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卑南遺址

排灣族群遺址 (排灣、卑南、魯凱族群)

大約在一百多年前，日本的學者鳥居龍藏來到台東卑南遺址，留下了最早的照片和記錄。月形石柱的價值，在於它所代表的象徵和意義，因為它正是卑南文化千年故事的起點。

卑南遺址，位於台灣台東縣卑南山東南端的山麓，是屬於台灣東部之新石器時代卑南文化的一個代表性遺址。根據考古學家的推斷，該遺址存在的年代大約是距今5300至2300年前，其中又以距今3500至2300年前最為興盛。卑南遺址的面積超過30萬平方公尺，是目前台灣所發現最大的史前聚落。此外，卑南遺址也出土了許多石板棺以及棺內精美的陪葬品，是環太平洋與東南亞地區規模最大的石板棺墓葬群遺址。

目前，卑南遺址不但是中華民國內政部文化建設委員會所指定的國定遺址，同時在該處也設有卑南文化公園，是台灣第一個考古遺址公園。

遺址挖掘簡史: 卑南遺址最早的考古紀錄是由日治初期的日本籍人類學者鳥居龍藏所開始，他曾為卑南遺址的石柱拍攝兩幀照片，其拍攝時間可能約在1896年。而鹿野忠雄則是第一位將卑南遺址當作考古遺址加以研究的學者，在鹿野忠雄1930年發表的文章中曾敘述在卑南遺址所在處有數不清的板岩石柱豎立於地表上。1945年時，金關丈夫和國分直一首次對最大立石的周圍開始進行試掘，並發現埋藏於遺跡地底的陶器以及住屋遺跡。

二次大戰結束之後，雖然有不少台灣學者陸續前來卑南遺址進行調查，但都未曾做過發掘。1980年，南迴鐵路卑南新站（今台東站）開工，將地下沉睡數千年的遺構、遺物大量揭露，並造成嚴重破壞，而引起輿論及各方的高度關切。台東縣政府遂委託台灣大學考古人類學系的宋文薰、連照美兩位教授，進行搶救考古。搶救考古工作共進行13梯次，前後長達9年，成果十分豐碩。無論是發掘面積、出土石棺及遺物數量皆是台灣考古史的空前紀錄，尤其是大量精美玉器重現於世，令人驚艷。

卑南文化: 卑南文化主要分佈於台灣東部的海岸山脈和花東縱谷南段的河階、海階或山區的緩坡地。重要遺址除了卑南遺址之外，還包括掃叭、富山、漁場、漁場南、東河Ⅰ、東河Ⅲ等其他地方。在這些遺址都出土了大量鐮刀、石刀等農具，而且器型也有大型化的趨勢，可見農耕更形發展、也更重要了。至於海岸地區的遺址則出土豐富的網墜、尖器等漁業用具，又顯示對海洋資源的依賴。

卑南遺址聚落描述以及出土器物: 卑南遺址的範圍相當大，面積超過30萬平方公尺。不但聚落龐大，而且建築物成排分佈，格局嚴謹，已經是頗具組織的社會結構。其住屋略成南北軸向，遙指都蘭山。每棟家屋坐西朝東，遠望溪流與海洋。家屋主體為長方形平面，東西長11.5公尺。南北寬5.5公尺。以板岩石板、大漂石為牆基，木材為柱，屋牆、屋頂葺以竹架、茅草。屋前以石板舖成方形前庭，屋後有橢圓形砌石圈，用來儲存食物及大陶罐。聚落中還有零星分佈的高架榖倉，支柱上配有防鼠板。

狩獵與農耕是卑南文化人的主要生業。他們在山林間獵野豬，在丘陵、平原捕梅花鹿。種植的穀物有旱稻、小米，以「山田燒墾」方式開闢田地。出土的農耕工具相當多，有墾地伐木的石鋤、石斧，收割的石刀、石鎌，舂榖的石杵等。狩獵的主要工具則有石矛、石鏃等。聚落雖然瀕臨卑南大溪，但村民並不擅長捕漁，魚類只是輔助的食物。

長期定居促使族人發展出各類工藝技術。除了農具、獵具等石器外，陶器是日常生活最普遍的用具之一，主要用來盛水、儲物及烹煮。陶器通常是手製，偶而使用轉盤整修技術，以露天方式燒成，火侯較低。外表以橙色素麵為主，少有紋飾。主要器形有罐、缽、小口瓶等容器，以及陶紡輪、陶槌、陶勺、陶匙等工具，也有少許裝飾品如陶珠、陶環，隨葬品如陶偶等。

精緻的玉器最能顯現族人審美觀與工藝技術能力。包括玉與似玉材質製成的頭飾、耳飾、頸飾、胸飾、腕飾、臂飾，以及一些非實用性的武器、工具，式樣繁多，風格別具。造形上，以玦形耳飾最富於變化。其中人獸形玦造形可作為代表，已被國立台灣史前文化博物館選為該館的館徽。這些玉器多為族人平常的裝飾品，人過世後則當作隨葬品長埋地底。從這些玉器的精細程度來判斷，很可能已經有人專門從事玉石飾品製作，並以玉製器物來交易。

此外，有數以千計的石板棺埋在卑南遺址的建築物底部，成帶狀分佈，而且與地上建築物的座向相同，顯然意義非比尋常。棺內更有豐富又精美的陪葬玉器、陶器，可見當時人已有靈魂觀念，相信死後另有世界，並且有相沿成俗的喪葬儀禮。出土的家屋與墓葬上下緊密交疊，成為卑南遺址的一大特色。

該遺址也發現了被獵頭的無頭遺骸，很可能是因為族群擴張領域、爭奪自然資源，開始出現部落間的爭戰。

遺址公園的誕生: 基於卑南遺址的重要性，宋文薰教授於1982年即建議就地興建野外博物館。1988年，卑南遺址被中華民國內政部列為國家一級古蹟。1991年，中央政府決定將遺址現地規劃為「卑南文化公園」。2002年8月，位於卑南遺址附近台東市康樂車站的國立台灣史前文化博物館首先開幕。4個月後，卑南文化公園遊客中心正式對外開放，台灣第一個遺址公園於焉誕生。

整個卑南文化公園的規劃理念，是將遺址視作一個蒼穹博物館。因此，該公園的一個特色，就是可以在園區內看到現場的考古發掘展示。

卑南文化公園的地址是台東市文化公園路200號。

* 從醫學資料看臺灣的族群融合 by 陳順勝

6,000年前南島語族遷移來臺灣發展族群：泰雅族、鄒族、賽夏、巴則海、洪雅族　

5,000年前排灣族群：排灣、卑南、魯凱族群遺址 (卑南遺址) 　

2,000年前凱達格蘭族遷回臺灣

1,500年前阿美族在靜浦─靜浦文化，鐵器時代　

1,000年前猴猴族遷回臺灣或由泰雅族分出(？) 　　

500年前雅美族由菲律賓巴丹島移居蘭嶼

* 鳥瞰台灣史前文化 by tnfsh.tn.edu.tw

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Genetic Studies

* Study on the Genetic Polymorphisms of Y Chromosomal DNA Short Tandem Repeat Loci Applied to Analyzing the Relative Affinities Among Ethnic Groups and Identifying the Paternal Cases in Taiwan by Fang-Chin Wu

Abstract: We collected the 1,281 buccal swab samples for typing Y chromosome DNA and identifying paternity relationship with written informed consent from unrelated male volunteers of 14 ethnic groups residing in Taiwan. The donators included Holo, Hakka, Mainlander, Amis, Paiwan, Atayal, Bunun, Truku, Rukai, Puyuma, Tsou, Saisiyat, Yami and Thao. We got 923 DNA Y-STR haplotypes for identifying paternal affinity.

Allele frequencies for the 17 Y-specific short tandem repeats (Y-STRs) loci DYS19, DYS385a/b, DYS389I/II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS437, DYS438, DYS439, DYS448, DYS456, DYS458, DYS635 and Y-GATA-H4 (AmpFℓSTR® Yfiler™ PCR Amplification Kit) were determined from 1,281 samples. The genetic distance values below 0.2, which show high genetic affinity between compared groups, have four groups: (1) Holo, Hakka and Mainlander; (2) Paiwan and Rukai; (3) Paiwan and Puyuma; (4) Atayal and Truku.

From the relation of genetic blood and geographic environment, we found the Atayal, Bunun, Truku and Tsou tribes had the high frequencies over 78.6 % of allele 13 and the Amis, Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma, Saisiyat, Yami and Thao tribes had the high frequencies over 76.1 % of allele 12.

In 60 paternity cases, we found 4 cases happening mutations on DNA STR and used DNA Y-STR to determine the blood relation for these.

* Genetic Affinities Between the Yami Tribe People of Orchid Island and the Philippine Islanders of the Batanes Archipelago by Jun-Hun Loo, et al.

Phylogenetic Tree of Populations of Taiwan, ISEA and MSEA Using mtDNA Haplogroup Frequencies (Fst distances) and Y-STR Haplotypes Frequencies

* The Biological Evidence of the San-pau-chi People and Their Affinities by Hsiu-Man Lin

Excerpt: A variety of genetic studies of mtDNA in Taiwan indigenous peoples have been conducted in the past decade (e.g., Sykes et al. 1995, Lin et al. 2000, Lin et al. 2005, Tajima et al. 2003, Trejaut et al. 2005, Yan 2006, Zhang 2004), and they have identified substantial haplogroup frequency variation. For instance, 80% of the people from populations in north and central Taiwan (Atayal, Saiaiat, and Bunun) belong to mtDNA haplogroups B4b, B5a2, E, F4b, and M7b; populations from north-central Taiwan (Tsou and Saisiat) are highest in B5a2; 72.2% of the members of populations from south and southeast Taiwan are characterized by haplogroups B4a, D5, F3b, M7c, and N9a; Amis and three southernmost populations of indigenous Taiwan are restricted to D5 lineages (Trejaut et al. 2005). Additionally, Tajima and colleagues (2003) examined mtDNA mutations characteristic of the “Polynesian Motif” which are located at nucleotides 16217, 16247, and 16261 (Melton et al. 1995, Redd et al. 1995) in indigenous Taiwanese and they found that they carry one (T16217C in cluster C7) or two (T16217C and C16261Tin C8) “Polynesian Motif” mutations, but the A16247G mutation has not been observed among these peoples.

A Neighbor-Joining Tree by HV1

* Recent Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Indigenous Populations by Shu-Juo Chen, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Asian and Oceanic Populations

Populations	N	H5	H6	H7	H8	H9	H10	H11	H12	H14
Bunun	17	5.9				17.6	58.8		17.6
Atayal	22		4.5			95.5
Yami	7			14.3		71.4	14.3
Paiwan	22				9.1	63.6	27.3
Ami	19			31.6	5.3	36.8	26.3
Puyuma	11			9.1		72.7	9.1			9.1
Tsou	18			5.6		88.9	5.6
Rukai	11					81.8	18.2
Saisiat	11			27.3		45.5	9.1	9.1	9.1
Thao	11	9.1		9.1		72.7	9.1
Pazah	11	18.2		27.3		18.2	36.4

The Phylogeny of Y-chromosome Haplotypes in East Asians (H1-H17) from Natives or Immigrants: Modern human origin in east Asia by Li Jin and Bing Su

* An Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Aborigines Using Y-Chromosome-Specific Microsatellite Variation by 朱家琳

Abstract: This study analyzed the genetic variation of seven Y-chromosomal microsatellite loci (DYS19, DYS388, DYS389, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392 and DYS393) of 240 unrelated male individuals from eight Taiwan aboriginal populations (Atayal, Amis, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiat and Tsou) to investigate genetic affinities among these populations and their population history. A total of 79 different haplotypes among 240 males were observed in the study, of which 51 (65%) were each found in a single male only, and 13 (16%) were shared between populations. Analysis of gene diversity indicated that several studied populations have experienced substantial genetic isolation with a reduction in male effective sizes, or have suffered bottlenecks in the past (e.g. Paiwan, Bunun, Tsou and Atayal). All the haplotypes were divided into three main subgroups based on stepwise mutation model. Furthermore, the studied populations were categorized by their predominant haplotypes. According to their haplotype distributions, these eight populations were divided into four groups: (1) Paiwan, Rukai and Puyuma (2) Atayal, Bunun and Tsou (3) Amis and (4) Saisiat. st statistics identified close genetic affinities among the populations in group 1. On the other hand, that the allelic and haplotype distributions of the populations in group 2 were distinct from each other, which suggested that gene flow among these neighboring populations were limited. It is not easy to analyze the genetic variation of Saisiat and Amis because of their complex haplotype distributions. The special allelic distribution of Amis might result from more than one bottleneck occurred in the past or genetic admixture of more than one populations.

* mtDNA Analysis of Bunun Remains Stored in the National Taiwan University by Shinoda Ken-ichi

Abstract: The Bunun tribe is one of the aboriginal Taiwanese populations living in the central mountain area of Taiwan. In this study, we analyzed the sequence variability of hypervariable region I and II of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in order to investigate the relationships between modern and historical Bunun populations. mtDNA sequences were retrieved from 25 of 34 samples that were obtained from the historical Bunun skeletal remains stored in National Taiwan University. In combination with the mtDNA data of 8 extant Taiwan aboriginal populations, we carried out phylogenetic analysis based on haplogroup frequency data. The results show that the genetic structure of the historical Bunun population is a complex matriline and that these samples share the same haplogroup with the extant Bunun population. Analysis of the genetic composition of the aboriginal populations also reveals an important ethnic heterogeneity of the present aboriginal Taiwanese. Analysis of genetic distances based on haplogroup frequencies revealed 2 distinct clusters composed of northern and central mountain groups (Atayal, Saistat, and Bunun) and east coast and southern mountain groups (Paiwan, Rukai, Amis, and Yami). The mtDNA haplogroups in the Taiwan aboriginal populations were found to be different from those in the Chinese and Taiwan-Han population; therefore, these Taiwan aboriginal haplogroups might have stemmed from the gene pool of the initial late Pleistocene settlers. Genetic diversity among the aboriginal populations may be attributed to the prolonged isolation and random genetic drift after the single introduction of all mtDNA haplogroups into Taiwan. Our experiments also indicate the availability of the past skeletal remains for verifying the hypotheses formulated on the basis of genetic data derived from the present populations.

* A Comparative Study of Sakizaya and Amis in Hualien by Mitochondrial DNA Sequences Analysis by Li-huang Tsai

NJ Tree

UPGMA Tree

* Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan: Implications for the population history of aboriginal Taiwanese by A. Tajima, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms in the D-loop region and the intergenic COII/tRNA(Lys) 9-bp deletion were examined in 180 individuals from all nine aboriginal Taiwanese groups: Atayal, Saisiat, Bunun, Tsou, Rukai, Paiwan, Ami, Puyuma, and Yami. A comparison of 563-bp sequences showed that there were 61 different sequence types, of which 42 types were specific to respective aboriginal groups. D-loop sequence variation and phylogenetic analysis enabled the 180 aboriginal lineages to be classified into eight monophyletic clusters (designated C1-C8). Phylogeographic analysis revealed that two (C2 and C4) of the eight clusters were new characteristic clusters of aboriginal Taiwanese and accounted for 8.3% and 13.9% of the aboriginal lineages, respectively. From the estimated coalescent times for the two unique clusters, the mtDNA lineages leading to such clusters were inferred to have been introduced into Taiwan approximately 11,000-26,000 years ago, suggesting ancient immigrations of the two mtDNA lineages. Genetic distances, based on net nucleotide diversities between populations, revealed three distinct clusters that were comprised of northern mountain (Atayal and Saisiat), southern mountain (Rukai and Paiwan), and middle mountain/east coast (Bunun, Tsou, Ami, Puyuma, and Yami) groups, respectively. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of 16 human populations (including six other Asian populations and one African population) confirmed that the three clusters for aboriginal Taiwanese had remained largely intact. Each of the clusters (north, south, and middle-east coast) was characterized by a high frequency of a particular lineage (C4, C2, and 9-bp deletion, respectively). This may result from random genetic drift among the aboriginal groups after a single introduction of all the mtDNA lineages into Taiwan, but another plausible explanation is that at least three genetically distinct ancestral populations have contributed to the maternal gene pool of aboriginal Taiwanese.

* Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations by Jean A. Trejaut, et al.

Principal Components Analysis

* More Genetic Sharing among the Population of Taiwan than Expected: A plain tribes (Pinpu) perspective by Marie Lin, et al.

Mitochondrial DNA (Neighbor Joining Phylogram)

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan - Red Cell Enzyme Systems by Feng Jin, et al.

NJ Dendrogram

* Heterogeneity of Taiwan’s Indigenous Population: Possible relation to prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals by m. Lin, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree of Taiwan’s indigenous peoples, Asians, North American Indians and Oceanians

Taiwan’s indigenous groups were found clustering together and adjacent to Maori and PNG Highlanders. Pazeh showed affinity with ‘Taiwanese’ (Hoklo, Hakka)

* Dental Arch and Palate in Taiwan Aboriginals--Ami, Bunun, Paiwan and Rukai Tribes by H. Miyazaki, et al.

Abstract: Differences in the dental arch and palate among Taiwan Aboriginals were investigated and compared with Taiwanese and Japanese. Plaster models were taken from 315 Taiwan Aboriginal adults, 185 Taiwanese and 426 Japanese between 1979 and 1989, and various dimensions were measured. There were no clear differences in the characteristics of the dental arch and palate between Taiwan Aboriginal tribes. However, they were found to differ from those of Taiwanese and Japanese. In a dendrogram constructed from a cluster analysis, two major clusters were found. Among males, the first cluster contained Paiwan and Rukai, the second contained Japanese, Taiwanese, Ami and Bunun. Among females, the first contained Japanese, Taiwanese, Rukai and Paiwan, the second contained Ami and Bunun. The Ami were close to Bunun and the Paiwan were close to Rukai among both males and females. These results indicate that Ami and Bunun, and Paiwan and Rukai, respectively, have close affinities.

* HLA Genetic Diversity and Linguistic Variation in East Asia by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Analysis (MDS) of Asian Populations Based on the HLADRB1 Allelic Polymorphism

AL: Altaic; AN (EF): Austronesian (Extra-Formosan); AN (TA): Austronesian (from Taiwan); AU: Austroasiatic; CK: Chukchi-Kamchatkan; EA: Eskimo-Aleut; GI: Gilyak; IEUY: Indo-European and Uralic-Yukaghir; KA: Tai-Kadai; SI: Sinitic; ST: Sino-Tibetan (here only Sinitic). Chinese (1): Northern Chinese; Chinese (2): Southern Chinese.

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan II. Serum Protein Systems by Isao Yuasa, et al.

NJ Trees for the Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan and Eight Other Populations Based on Ds (A) and Dc (B) Distance Matrix

* A Study of the Genetic Relationships Among Aboriginal Populations in Taiwan ：Comparison of Pseudogene Sequences on Autosomal Chormorsome

UPGMA Tree

(P-Puyuma, Ta-Atayal, S-Saisiat, T-Tsou, R-Rukai, Pai-Paiwan, H-Taiwan Han, A-Amis, B-Bunun)

NJ Tree

* Genetic Diversity in the Class HLA-B Gene of the Nine Taiwan Aboriginal Tribes and Han Chinese as Revealed by High Resolution Sequence-Based HLA Typing Implication for the Origins and Dispersal of the Taiwan Aborigines by 賴朝陽

Abstract: The polygenic HLA (human leukocyte antigen) gene complex is the most polymorphic cluster of functional genes known. The high polymorphism of HLA genes makes these functional genes ideal genetic markers for studying inter-relationships among various human populations. Combing the results of HLA polymorphism with evidences from socio-cultural, archaeological and linguistic studies, we may understand better the origins and dispersal of human populations. In this study we have used sequence-based typing (SBT) to analyze the degree of polymorphism of class HLA-B gene in the nine Taiwan aboriginal tribes (Amis, Atayal, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiat, Tsou, and Yami) and Taiwan Han Chinese. The allele frequencies of each population are estimated by a maximum-likelihood method and used to calculate genetic distances between pairwise populations according to Nei s formula. Phylogenetic tree is then constructed from these genetic distances. The results show limited genetic diversity of Taiwan aborigines. The distributions of allele frequencies of Taiwan aborigines versus Han Chinese are different. All the Taiwan aboriginal tribes have a high percentage of B*1301, B*3901, B*4001, B*4002, B*4801, B*5502. Allele frequencies of HLA-B in Yami and Taiwn Han Chinese are different from those in the other populations. The total frequencies of these six alleles are more than 70 in all tribes except Yami, Puyuma and Taiwan Han Chinese. The results of allele frequencies and genetic distances also indicate that Yami and Taiwan Han Chinese are more different from the other populations. Phylogentic trees constructed from both class HLA-A,-B and class HLA-DPB1, -DRB1, -DRB3/4/5, show that 1 the Atayal and Saisiat, as well as Rukai and Bunun, probably are monophylic; 2 the Yami tribe seem to be very different from the other aboriginal tribes. In the future, when there are more genetic data from populations in the Philippines and Southeast Asia, South mainland China and Pacificregions, we may understand much more about the origins and dispersal of Taiwan aborigines in particular, and the Austronesians in general.

* A Homeland or Hostland? The power and challenges of genetic studies on Austronesian’s expansion by Mutsu Hsu and Shu-Juo Chen

Neighbor-joining Tree of Taiwan AN Populations, East Asians, Southeast Asians and Other Populations Worldwide (from Chu et al. 2001)

Neighbor-joining (NJ) Tree for the Nine Taiwan AN Populations and Other Asian and African Populations (from Tajima et al. 2003)

Ami showed difference with other eight populations (including Yami)

* The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective by Yoshan Moodley, et al.

The Distribution of H. pylori Populations in Asia and the Pacific

(Distribution of hspMaori among Taiwnaese aborigines: Kavalan 0/1, Atayal 4/4, Amis 7/16, Bunun 13/14, Rukai 3/3, Paiwan 15/18, Yami 1/3)

1. Japan-Hokkaido, 2. Japan-Honshu, 3. Japan-Okinawa, 4. Korea, 5. China-Hong Kong, 13. Vietnam, 14. Singapore, 15. Malaysia, 16. Thailand, 17. Philippines, 18. India - Ladakh, 19. New Caledonia - Melanesians, 20. New Caledonia - Polynesians from Wallis and Futuna, 21. New Zealand, 22. Samoa/Tonga

HLA-B62

HLA-B62 (B62) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies certain B*15 gene-allele protein products of HLA-B.

B62 is largest of many split antigens of the broad antigen, B15. B62 best identifies the B*1501, B*1504, B*1507, and B*1525 allele products.

**HLA B*1501 Frequencies**
Population	(%)
Japan Ainu Hokkaido	29.0
Autonomous Tibetans	12.3
South Korea ( 3)	10.5
Japan Central	8.7
Japan pop3	7.5
Shijiazhuang Tianjian Han	7.0
China Qinghai Hui	6.8
Croatia	6.7
Japan pop5	6.5
Portugal Centre	6.0
Taiwan Rukai	6.0
Australia New South Wales	5.6
France South East	5.5
China Beijing	5.3
Czech Republic	4.7
Ireland South	4.6
China Inner Mongolia	4.4
Russia Tuva (2)	4.2
Singapore Chinese	4.0
Taiwan Paiwan	3.9
China North Han	3.8
Georgia Svaneti Svans	3.8
Ireland Northern	3.8
Italy North Pavia	3.7
Azores Central Islands	3.6
Madeira	3.5
Taiwan Minnan pop 1	3.4
Azores Terceira Island	3.1
Taiwan Siraya	2.9
Taiwan Hakka	2.7
Taiwan Pazeh	2.7
China Yunnan Nu	2.6
Romanian	2.3
Hong Kong Chinese	2.2
India North Hindus	1.9
New Caledonia	1.9
Italy South Campania	1.8
Taiwan Thao	1.7
India North Delhi	1.6
China Guangzhou	1.5
China Guangxi Maonan	1.4
China Yunnan Lisu	1.4
Thailand	1.4
PNG New Britain Rabaul	1.3
Portugal North	1.1
United Arab Emerates	1.1
Thailand pop3	1.0
Indig. Australian Yuendumu	0.8
PNG Wanigela	0.8
Spain Eastern Andalusia	0.6
Spain E. Andalusia Gipsy	0.5
Taiwan Bunun	0.5

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魯凱族

魯凱族（Rukai）為台灣原住民，分布於台東縣、屏東縣、高雄縣等縣境內，人口約一萬餘人。

簡介

伊能嘉矩和鳥居龍藏之分類稱其為澤利先族（Tsarisen），「澤利先」為「住在山地的人」之意。移川子之藏改稱為魯凱，沿用至今。

文化特質

有和排灣族相似的貴族制度，但較鬆散，為父系社會，重男輕女，長男繼承家產。

百合花象徵女子的純潔與男子的狩獵豐碩。敬重百步蛇與雲豹。

荷蘭統治時期，魯凱族人有和荷蘭人通婚的紀錄，目前仍有後裔存在。

知名人物

沈文程-台灣名電視主持人，亦在原住民電視台主持魯凱語節目。
梁文音-歌手，1／2魯凱族血統，星光二班成員。
賴聖恩-歌手，星光三班成員。
林鴻鳴-歌手，1／2魯凱族血統，星光四班成員。

梁文音專輯

2008年12月《愛的詩篇》
1. 最幸福的事詞:馬嵩惟曲:劉宜 (video)
2. 薄荷與指甲剪詞:陳宏宇曲:黃子軒 (video)
3. 雪雨詞:馬嵩惟曲:Jasemaine (video)
4. 弦外之音詞:嚴雲農曲:陳台證 (video)
5. 可以不愛了詞、曲:戴佩妮
6. 我不是你想像那麼勇敢詞:姚謙曲:陳威全
7. 最親愛的詞:馬嵩惟曲:阿滾
8. 第一眼 (OT:Love You Anyway) (video)
9. Dry Your Eyes 詞、曲:深白色
10. 愛的詩篇詞、曲:阿弟仔

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Artist: Alas - 阿拉斯 (Wen-sig Du, 杜文喜)

(Photo from 哀悼大師杜文喜 by 王榮信)

* 魯凱獵人---杜文喜

Excerpt: 現年六十歲而漢名為的杜文喜﹐是一位長年寓居屏東霧台深山﹐卻已執著創作大半生的魯凱族素人藝術家。杜文喜的魯凱語原名為阿拉斯﹐正傳達著他屬於頭目貴族階級的嫡傳血統。台灣原住民現存的十族裡﹐魯凱族主要分布在屏東縣霧台鄉﹑高雄縣茂林鄉以及台東縣卑南鄉三地﹐人口數共計一萬五千人﹐約佔原住民總數的百分之一點五。在血源與文化脈絡上﹐魯凱族與排灣足最為近似。

Wutai (霧臺鄉) is a rural township in Pingtung County, Taiwan. It has a population total of 2,748 and an area of 278.7960 square kilometres.

霧台鄉位於台灣屏東縣東北部，地處中央山脈之上，地勢高聳險峻，平均海拔在1000公尺以上，可耕地極少，鄉內居民則以台灣原住民魯凱族為主。

Paintings by Alas

* 關於「魯凱獵人杜文喜的藝術世界」 by 林田富

* 愛與怨雕塑杜文喜 by 高雄市立美術館

* 理想的化身 by 陳秀薇

* 杜文喜立體作品集

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Artist: 巴勤發 (Pa Chin-fa; 自稱「刀疤」)

(Photo from 巴勤發 by 原住民族文化教育暨生計發展中心)

* 情感豐沛的刀疤手－巴勤發 by KUBA

Excerpt: 排灣族名字簡稱呼為Amuge（阿姆哥）的巴勤發原是文心蘭花農，在國中一戰成名，在日本繪畫競賽中得獎，日後巴勤發一直不忘情創作，就在颱風吹毀他的溫室後，決定棄農投藝，專心魯凱石板與木雕，在部落有「刀疤」藝術家之稱。因為姓巴、又愛玩刀雕刻，五十三年次的巴勤發被部落族人稱為「刀疤」，小時候就向外公學習畫畫、雕刻，國中二年級時老師把他的繪畫作品寄到日本參賽，還獲得櫻花賞佳績。巴勤發說，因為出身教育世家，畫畫一途不被長輩認同，但他自己買了很多繪畫的書，用來臨摹、模仿，雖然沒有正式拜師學藝，但一直很喜歡畫，也常有靈感。民國八十二年間他參加台灣省原住民第一屆木雕比賽獲得第二名，後來也陸續應聘到阿里山的山美國小、家鄉的霧台國小、瑪家鄉瑪家國中教學，作品則陸續被台北順益木雕博物館、奇美博物館、高雄市立美術館、三義木雕博物館、韓國濟州大學等單位收藏。

Sculpture by 巴勤發

(Photo from 刀疤巴勤發 by 當代原住民藝術家系列)

我的家人 (My Family; paper, cloth) by 巴勤發

(Photos from 巴勤發〈我的家人〉 by austronesian.kmfa.gov.tw)

* 巴勤發 by 原住民族文化教育暨生計發展中心

* 原住民工藝——當代藝術的美學表現與可能 by 萬煜瑤

* 刀疤工坊/魯凱工藝文化創作巴勤發的作品 by Kaohsiung Web Tv

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TaiwanDNA.com

Origins and Diversity of the Taiwanese People

TaiwanDNA.com Homepage

Chief of Wanshan Community in the Xia San Community Group of Rukai

* 魯凱族網路社群---台灣原住民數位博物館--部落網站社群系統

* A Visit to Maolin Fascinating Rukai Aboriginal Homeland by Cliff Vost

RUKAI

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Rukai Distribution Map

(Map from Digital Museum of Taiwan Indigeneous Peoples)

* To Know the Rukai Tribe by the Web of Ping Tung Aboriginals

Classification of Formosan Languages

Blust (1999)

Li (2008)

Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (2008)

Sagart (2004)

* The Higher Phyolgeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadaii by Laurent SagartEnriched Higher An Phylogeny Based on Basic-Lexical and Morphological Innovations (gray area at bottom)

Ross (2009)

(Chart from Linguistic Evidence for Austronesian Homeland and Dispersal by Paul Jen-kuei Li)

台灣南島語言

「台灣南島語言」在南島語族的分類位置

「台灣南島語言」分類系譜

Formosan Clouded Leopard

Taiwanese Aboriginal Male Wearing a Leopard Fur

(Image from zh.wikipedia.org:)

* Rukai Tribe: People of the cloud leopard by culture.tw

* Rukai Tribe by Taiwan Indigeneous Culture Park

A Rukai Girl with Leopard Teeth Head Dress by Chang Yi-Hsing (張義雄), 1957

(Image from Digital Taiwan - Culture)

Lilium formosanum

* Four Types of Native Lilies Found in Taiwan by Taiwan.com.au

Rukai Mural in Wutai (霧台), Pingtung

(Image from Rukai Village Popular Tourist Destination by Rita Fang)

* Rukai Tribe by Taiwan Indigeneous Culture Park

Hundred-Pacer Snake

* The Rukai: Origin Myths by World Summit of Indigeneous Cultures

Rukai Carved Wooden Statues at Da'nan

(Image from The Gerald Warner Taiwan Image Collection)

Rukai Ancestor Panel

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

On the head of the ancestor, a double headed snake motive symbolizing the value and a double eagle feathers ornament meaning that this ancestor is high chief. Under his feet, a muntjac.

Rukai Box for Divination Instruments

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

That's in this kind of box that the shamans were putting their divination tools, with herbs and medications. The principal motif is made of two faces over a snake whose only half of the body is shown

Ama: Rukai Woodcarver

Rukai Stone House

(Photo by Bureau of Tourism Kaohsiung County)

* Rukai Tribe by Taiwan Indigeneous Culture Park

A Rukai Chief

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

The frontyard of the chief house for the Rukai and the Paiwan had a very important role as it was used as a place to meet. Skull racks were also not far away to display the trophies from head-hunting

Rukai Villagers

(Image from The Yang-Grevot Collection)

Dutch Formosa

Coat of Arms of the Dutch East India Company

Goedhart, his wife and Rukai elders touch the tribe's sacred reretan. (CNA)

* A Journey into the Indigenous Heartland by Ellen Ko

卑南遺址

排灣族群遺址 (排灣、卑南、魯凱族群)

大約在一百多年前，日本的學者鳥居龍藏來到台東卑南遺址，留下了最早的照片和記錄。月形石柱的價值，在於它所代表的象徵和意義，因為它正是卑南文化千年故事的起點。

* 從醫學資料看臺灣的族群融合 by 陳順勝

* 鳥瞰台灣史前文化 by tnfsh.tn.edu.tw

Genetic Studies

* Study on the Genetic Polymorphisms of Y Chromosomal DNA Short Tandem Repeat Loci Applied to Analyzing the Relative Affinities Among Ethnic Groups and Identifying the Paternal Cases in Taiwan by Fang-Chin Wu

* Genetic Affinities Between the Yami Tribe People of Orchid Island and the Philippine Islanders of the Batanes Archipelago by Jun-Hun Loo, et al.

Phylogenetic Tree of Populations of Taiwan, ISEA and MSEA Using mtDNA Haplogroup Frequencies (Fst distances) and Y-STR Haplotypes Frequencies

* The Biological Evidence of the San-pau-chi People and Their Affinities by Hsiu-Man Lin

A Neighbor-Joining Tree by HV1

* Recent Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Indigenous Populations by Shu-Juo Chen, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Asian and Oceanic Populations

The Phylogeny of Y-chromosome Haplotypes in East Asians (H1-H17) from Natives or Immigrants: Modern human origin in east Asia by Li Jin and Bing Su

* An Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Aborigines Using Y-Chromosome-Specific Microsatellite Variation by 朱家琳

* mtDNA Analysis of Bunun Remains Stored in the National Taiwan University by Shinoda Ken-ichi

* A Comparative Study of Sakizaya and Amis in Hualien by Mitochondrial DNA Sequences Analysis by Li-huang Tsai

NJ Tree

UPGMA Tree

* Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan: Implications for the population history of aboriginal Taiwanese by A. Tajima, et al.

* Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations by Jean A. Trejaut, et al.

Principal Components Analysis

* More Genetic Sharing among the Population of Taiwan than Expected: A plain tribes (Pinpu) perspective by Marie Lin, et al.

* 愛與怨雕塑杜文喜 by 高雄市立美術館

* 情感豐沛的刀疤手－巴勤發 by KUBA

* 刀疤工坊/魯凱工藝文化創作巴勤發的作品 by Kaohsiung Web Tv