The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult production environments. It was millets, rather than rice, that formed important parts of prehistoric diet in Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies.

Taro (from Tahitian or other Polynesian languages), more rarely kalo (from Hawaiian) and gabi in The Philippines, is a tropical plant grown primarily as a vegetable food for its edible corm, and secondarily as a leaf vegetable. It is considered a staple in oceanic cultures. It is believed to be one of the earliest cultivated plants.

POPORA

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

The Popora (巴布拉) are a Taiwanese aboriginal people, living primarily in the area around Taichung and the Taiwanese western coastal littoral. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Dutch East India Company traded with the Papora and provide records of life among them.

Taichung (臺中市 or 台中市) is a city located in west-central Taiwan with a population of just over one million people, making it the third largest city on the island, after Taipei and Kaohsiung. It is officially administrated as a provincial city of Taiwan. The city's name means "Central Taiwan."

Taiwanese aborigines populated the plains that make up modern Taichung City. They lived by cultivating millet and taro and were hunter gathers. Several local names in central Taiwan, including Shalu Township and Lukang Township in Changhua County contain the word for “deer.”

Taichung was founded in 1705 as a part of Changhua County with the name of Dadun (大墩; lit. large mound).

Classification of Austronesian Languages

Tsouic
- Tsou
- Saaroa
- Kanakanabu
Western Plains
- Thao (AKA Sao. Brawbaw, Shtafari dialects)
- Central Western Plains
  - Babuza (Taokas, Poavosa dialects)
  - Popora-Hoanya (Popora, Hoanya dialects)
Northwest Formosan
- Saisiyat (Taai, Tungho dialects)
- Pazeh (AKA Kulun)
Atayalic
- Atayal
- Seediq (AKA Truku, Taroko)
East Formosan
- Northern (Kavalanic)
  - Basai (Trobiawan, Linaw-Qauqaul dialects)
  - Kavalan
  - Ketagalan
- Central (Ami)
  - Nataoran (North Amis)
  - Amis
- Siraya
- Malayo-Polynesian
Bunun
Rukai (Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects are divergent)
Puyuma
Paiwan (southern tip of Formosa)

台中沙鹿遷善社競走儀式用井

(Image from Digital Archives)

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* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart

Higer AN Phylogeny Based on Innovations among Numerals

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Kingdom of Middag

Kingdom of Middag, 1540-1732

The Kingdom of Middag was a kingdom located in central Taiwan. The kingdom was established by the Taiwanese aboriginal tribes of Popora, Babuza, Pazeh, and Hoanya. The kingdom occupied present-day Taichung, Changhua, and Nantou. It was established in the 16th century, before the Europeans arrived in Taiwan. It survived the rulings of European colonists and the Kingdom of Tungning led by Koxinga. However, the kingdom was conquered in approximately 1732 by Qing forces under the administration of Yongzheng Emperor.

Names: The Kingdom of Middag is the western name for the kingdom. In Taiwan, it is known as the Kingdom of Dadu (大肚王國), Dadu being the modern-day name of the historical capital Middag.

The leader of the kingdom also had different titles. The Dutch name of the title was Keizer van Middag, the German name was Keiser von Mittag, the Hoklo name was Quata Ong, and the most common aboriginal name was Lelian ("Sun King").

History: The kingdom first came into contact with the West in early 17th century. After the Dutch East India Company established its outpost at Taoyoan in 1624, it came into armed conflicts with the kingdom on some occasions, and was able to force the kingdom into submission. The kingdom, however, maintained its semi-autonomous status, and had the authority to ban European missionary activities in its territory. Generally speaking, the kingdom maintained a friendly relation with the Dutch.

In 1662, Ming loyalist Koxinga and his followers laid siege to the Dutch outpost, and eventually established the Kingdom of Tungning. Tungning and Middag were constantly at odds due to Middag's friendly relations with the Dutch, and hostility between the kingdom's population and the Han people that constituted the population of Tungning. Furthermore, the Kingdom of Tungning was in constant need of expansion in order to realize its ultimate goal - defeat the Qing empire and restore the Ming Dynasty. Therefore, the two kingdoms clashed on numerous occasions, with the territory of Tungning gradually expanded and Middag forced to retreat.

After the Qing's successful campaign that resulted in the capitulation of the Kingdom of Tungning, the Kingdom of Middag faced an even more powerful and capable enemy. During the reign of Yongzheng Emperor of Qing in the 18th century, the kingdom was constantly at war with the empire, and suffered numerous defeats. The kingdom eventually collapsed and ceased to exist, and its descendants are scattered in present day Puli in central Taiwan.

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Plains Aborigines

A Plains Tribe Aborigine child and woman

The Plains Aborigines mainly lived in stationary village sites surrounded by defensive walls of bamboo. The village sites in southern Taiwan were more populated than other locations. Some villages supported a population of more than 1500 people, surrounded by smaller satellite villages (Kang 2003:111–117). Siraya villages were constructed of dwellings made of thatch and bamboo, raised 2 m from the ground on stilts, with each household having a barn for livestock. A watchtower was located in the village to look out for headhunting parties from the highland tribes. The concept of property was often communal, with a series of conceptualized concentric rings around each village. The innermost ring was used for gardens and orchards that followed a fallowing cycle around the ring. The second ring was used to cultivate plants and natural fibers for the exclusive use of the tribe. The third ring was for exclusive hunting and deer fields for tribal use. The plains people hunted herds of spotted deer and muntjak as well as conducting light millet farming. Sugar and rice were grown as well, but mostly for use in preparing wine (Shepherd 1993:29–34).

Many of the plains peoples were matrilineal/matrifocal societies. Men married into a woman’s family after a courtship period where the woman was free to reject as many men as she wished before marriage. In the age-grade communities, couples entered into marriage in their mid-30s when a man would no longer be required to perform military service or hunt heads on the battle-field. In the matriarchal system of the Siraya, it was also necessary for couples to abstain from marriage until their mid-thirties, when the bride’s father would be in his declining years and would not pose a challenge to the new male member of the household. It was not until the arrival of the Dutch Reformed Church in the 17th Century, that the marriage and child-birth taboos were abolished. There is some indication that many of the younger members of Sirayan society embraced the Dutch marriage customs as a means to circumvent the age-grade system in a push for greater village power (Shepherd 1995:61–65). Almost all indigenous peoples in Taiwan have traditionally had a custom of sexual division of labor. Women did the sewing, cooking and farming, while the men hunted and prepared for military activity and securing enemy heads in headhunting raids, which was a common practice in early Taiwan. Women were also often found in the office of priestess or medium to the gods.

平埔族十大族簡表

族名	支族(或著名部落)	生存範圍
A: 凱達格蘭族 (Ketagalan)	A1:Basai巴(馬)賽支族	分佈於基隆、金山、三貂角、貢寮、東北角一帶。
	A2:Trobiawan 哆囉里(美)遠支族	今宜蘭縣壯圍鄉(舊名社頭)一帶。
	A3:Luilang雷朗支族	台北盆地及其附近新店板橋桃園南崁，有雷裡、秀朗等社
B: 噶瑪蘭族 ( 蛤仔難)(卡瓦蘭) (Kavalan)	有三十六大社:棋立丹社、馬麟社、歪仔歪社、打馬煙社、里荖社、加禮宛社等。	以宜蘭平原為核心，蘭陽溪為隔，溪北[西勢番]十九社，溪南[東勢番]十七社。
C:道卡斯族 (打卡死) (Taokas)	大甲西社、貓裡社、苑裡社、後壟社、吞霄社、竹塹社等十六社。	台中縣大甲鎮、苗栗縣沿海、新竹海岸平原。[大甲]即道卡斯族[大甲西]社老家，[通霄]是[吞霄]社的老家。
D:巴則海族(帕則赫) (拍宰海) (Pazeh)	烏牛欄社、葫蘆墩社、岸里社等共十六社	台中盆地、葫蘆墩(豐原)、東勢一帶為核心。北抵大甲溪岸,南到潭子鄉,西至大肚山一帶。
E:巴布拉族 (帕瀑拉) (爬坡拉) (巴瀑拉) (Papora)	大肚社、沙轆社、牛罵社(今清水鎮，舊名牛罵頭)、水裡社等。	台中大甲溪(清水鎮)以南，大肚溪以北，大肚台地以西,今台中縣海岸地區。
F: 貓霧束(束,音:薩)族 (巴布薩) (Babuza)	二林社、貓霧束社(台中市南屯區)、西螺社、東螺社、半線社(彰化市)、馬芝遴社等。	台中市與彰化縣之海岸區域，約大肚溪以南、濁水溪以北之地。包括彰化平原大部分,台中盆地一部分。
G:洪雅族 (洪安雅) (和安雅) (Hoanya)	G1:Lloa嘍嘍仔支族(魯羅阿支族)	分布於今嘉義、雲林縣境，有諸羅山社、斗六門社、他里霧社(斗南鎮)、貓兒干社(崙背鄉豐榮村)等。
G:洪雅族 (洪安雅) (和安雅) (Hoanya)	G2:Arikun阿里昆支族	南投縣境及彰化縣東境，有南投社、北投社等。
H:邵族 (水沙連) (Thao)	南投縣水里、魚池鄉,日月潭一帶。	在今之日月潭一帶。1910年日本學者鳥居龍藏把邵族改列為高山族，此前，邵族被歸為平埔族。但今天台灣官方欽定的山胞九族，卻不包括邵族在內。邵族又歸於平埔族。人口僅剩三四百人。
I:西拉雅族 (Siraya)	I1:Siraya西拉雅支族	分佈在台南平原上，有赤崁社、台窩灣社(安平區)、蕭壟社(佳里鎮)、焦吧年社(原新化鎮、後遷至玉井鄉)、麻豆社、新港社(新市鄉)、學甲社等。
	I2:Taivoran 大武壟支族(四社熟番)	今台南縣善化鎮、玉井、大內鄉一帶，屬曾文溪流域;有頭社、霄里社、芒仔芒社、加拔社等。
	I3:Makato馬卡道支族	分佈在屏東平原至恆春一帶，有阿猴社(屏東市)、上淡水社、下淡水社、放索社、搭樓社(里港鄉)等。
J:猴猴族(Qauqaut)	猴猴田寮社、高高社	今宜蘭縣蘇澳鎮龍德里,原居住於南方澳和猴猴溪流域,後遷至東勢及利澤簡,今已全族漢化消失滅絕。

台灣的地名、山名絕大多數都與原住民有關。

「有唐山公,無唐山媽」,平埔族也是台灣人的祖先,我們千萬不要「背祖忘宗」。

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan - Red Cell Enzyme Systems by Feng Jin, et al.

Excerpt: About 400 years ago during the Ch'ing Dynasty, aboriginal people covered almost everywhere of the Taiwan Island.... The plains people are composed of at least ten ethnic groups, namely Ketagalan, Kavalan, Luilang, Taokas, Pazeh, Papora, Babuza, Thao, Hoanya, and Siraya. Based on the language, cultural and geographical features, mountain people are divided into nine ethnic groups, namely Atayal, Saisiat, Bunuh, Tsou, Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma, Ami, and Yami.

* Immunoglobulin Allotypes among Taiwan Aborigines: Evidence of malarial selection could affect studies of population affinity by Moses S Schanfield, et al.

Abstract: The aborigines of Taiwan represent the indigenous inhabitants of the island at the time of the arrival of the Chinese from the mainland. Linguistically, the aboriginal Taiwanese are related to the Malayo-Polynesianspeaking inhabitants of Indonesia and the Philippines. Three tribes occupied lowland areas while six tribes occupied highland areas. Previous studies indicate that genetic markers associated with malaria occur in lowland populations. Though the GM haplotypes are demonstrated to be very useful in the measure of population affinities, the possibility of malarial selection on this locus could affect studies of population affinity. The present work is a case study to see whether a subdivided insular population under a possible selective load will provide divergent clustering analysis depending on the population sampled. Immunoglobulin allotype (GM and KM) profiles were generated on 230 lowland and 407 highland Taiwan Aborigines from the nine tribes. A highly significant difference in GM haplotype distribution was detected between lowland and highland populations (adjusted G = 69.408, 2 df [degrees of freedom], p < 0.00001). There were no significant differences in KM*1 frequency by altitude. The Taiwan Aboriginal GM and KM frequencies were compared to data from Indonesians, Vietnamese, Thai, Malay, Chinese from Taiwan, and Ryukyu Islanders from Okinawa using cluster analysis. The lowland populations plot among the Thai (N, NC) and Malayan Aborigines. In contrast, the highland and total Taiwan Aborigine samples plot with the Indonesian, Vietnamese, and Malayan Negrito samples. Thus, depending on the populations of Taiwan Aborigines used, different conclusions could be reached. The highland population supports the published linguistic ties; however, the lowland population does not support the linguistic relationship with Indonesian populations but is more closely related to Thai and Malays, or reflects a similar selection history.

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清水遺址出土二號頭骨正面觀

* 巴則海及貓霧拺平埔族人骨學分析

張菁芳在比較十三行遺址出土之人骨形態學分析時，曾利用台中地區平埔族巴則海10具人骨及西螺貓霧拺19具人骨做比對標本。經Mahalanobis距離及逐步判別族群分類顯示兩者在分類圖難以區分，表示此二族可能已有相當程度之混血情形，而與北部十三行人骨標本的關係較遠。若與原住民相比，巴則海族與泰雅族及布農族的距離最近。這一結論可說是目前唯一值得參考的史前、原住民及平埔族類緣關係的線索。陳叔倬利用HLA多態性頻率分別比較台灣人、原住民與亞洲、大洋洲、美洲原住民血緣關係後，也得出巴則海人、賽夏人及泰雅人生物距離較近的結果。

　　上述初步結果再與西部平原平埔族的語言群做相關比較。依南島語言學家費羅禮的分類，道卡斯、巴布拉、貓霧拺、巴則海均屬排灣語群，這個語言可能在本島內先行分化。易言之，要比屬於排灣語群Ⅱ的（西拉雅、布農、阿美、噶瑪蘭、雅美）早到台灣。李壬癸認為上述五族的語言「都有密切的關係，可說當初是由同一種語言分化出來的」。他又進一步地指出，五者之中，道、貓兩種語言關係相當接近，而巴、洪關係較疏。前者雖然關係較近，但在地理空間上與巴布拉夾在中間，他推想「巴為後來居中而使道、貓語言分化」。另一種可能性是道、貓兩族中「有一群跨越巴布拉之後，分化成為語群。巴布拉與洪雅的語言關係不如道、貓」。

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* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

Abstract: This study is focused on Central area of Taiwan and based on three important Iron Age plains and coastal archaeological sites-Fan-Zai-Uan (番仔園), Lu-Liao (鹿寮) and Hui-Lai (惠來), dating between 2000 and 400 B.P. This period is so called “Iron Age”. Mitochondrial DNA extracted from human remains of these three sites will tell us the genetic relation between the Iron Age people and modern aboriginal populations of Taiwan. Combing other pertinent researches of this subject, we can delineate the possible migration route of Iron Age people. The results of ancient DNAs（aDNAs）indicate that Iron Age people in Central Taiwan have genetic affinities with some modern aboriginal populations. The haplogroups of aDNAs show that their maternal origin might be the mainland of Asia.

Based on haplotyes shared with modern aboriginal populations, Fan-Zai-Yuan sample is closely related to Atayal ethnic group. Atayal came from mountain area of central Taiwan. The haplotype of Fan-Zai-Yuan sample possibly has a connection with Da-Ma-Lin archaeological site, which is located in the central mountain area and affected by cultures from plains. Lu-Liao sample is close to Bunun ethnic group. Lu-Liao site is where Papora used to live. A linguistic study suggests that Papora might come from the Zhuo-Shui river, which is a possible homeland of Luan community of Bunun. The Hui-Lai sample shares no haplotyes with any modern aboriginal populations. The haplogourp is also hardly found in modern Austronesian, possibly because lots of populations lived here and had a large gene pool.

Recent genetic researches show that modern aboriginal populations are heterogenous because of geographic reasons. However, people who live in plains interacted frequently and belonged to the same culture system for a long time. Based on the results of aDNAs analysis, the Iron Age people arrived lowland central Taiwan as early as part of modern indigenous people who live in mountain area today. Moreover, people who live in plains were more likely to be affected by other cultures. Genetically speaking, their population structures tend to be more diverse.

Iron Age

In archaeology, the Iron Age is the prehistoric period in any area during which cutting tools and weapons were mainly made of iron or steel. The adoption of this material coincided with other changes in society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles.

The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system for classifying prehistoric societies, preceded by the Bronze Age and the Stone Age. Its dates and context vary depending on the geographical region. The Iron Age in each area ends with the beginning of the historical period, i.e. the local production of ample written sources.

China: In 1972, near the city of Gaocheng (藁城) in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province), an iron-bladed bronze tomahawk (铁刃青铜钺) dating back to the 14th century BC was excavated. After a scientific examination, the iron was shown to be made from meteoric siderite. The Iron Age in East Asia began, however, when iron objects began to appear in present-day Xinjiang between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou. This was soon followed by the development of iron metallurgy on the Manchurian plain by the 9th century BC. Iron metallurgy reached the Yangzi Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing. The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid to late Warring States period (from about 350 BC).

The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments and the sophisticated cast.

An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.

Korea: Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the Yellow Sea area in the fourth century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but before the Western Han Dynasty began. Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in the Geum River basin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased in this period.

Japan: The Yayoi period (弥生時代, Yayoi-jidai) is an era in the history of Japan from about 500 BC to AD 300. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of an intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. The Yayoi followed the Jōmon period (14,000 BC to 500 BC) and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū.

The succeeding Kofun period (古墳時代, Kofun-jidai) lasts from around 250 to 538. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period. Iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during this era or the late Yayoi period, most likely through contacts with the Korean Peninsula and China.

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巴布拉族

巴布拉族（Papora）（拍瀑拉族）為台灣原住民，分佈於台中大甲、沙鹿、梧棲和清水一帶的海岸平原。在荷蘭、明鄭和清領時期都有被討伐的記錄，後遷往埔里。1731年－1732年該族反抗漢人的大甲西社番亂，為史載最大的平埔族民變。也因為此民變，統治台灣的清廷取消漢人移民來台的「禁止攜眷」政令。

聚落

牛罵社(台中縣清水鎮)
沙轆社(台中縣沙鹿鎮)
水裡社(台中縣龍井鄉)
大肚社(台中縣大肚鄉)

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大肚王國

大肚王國，為16世紀中期臺灣原住民巴布拉族與巴布薩族、巴則海族和一部份洪雅族所成立的「跨族群準王國」。領域範圍主要在今天的台中縣，以及彰化縣和南投縣的一部分，依據蘇格蘭人David Wright的記載，大肚王國最強盛的時候曾統治27座村落，只是後來有10座村落獨立

大肚王稱呼: 大肚王，漢人稱為Quataong，翁佳音推測可能係閩南語Hoan-á-ong（番仔王）的轉訛。荷語稱其為Keizer van Middag，台灣原住民則稱之為Lelien，意為白晝之王或太陽王。大肚番王的首領一直以 Camachat 為名，而干仔轄（Camachat; 巴布拉語）也是大肚番王所轄村社共同使用的平埔部族語言名稱，在清朝的土地調查文書中也有干仔轄、干馬轄、干仔旱等由此音譯而來的稱呼。

荷蘭時期: 荷蘭東印度公司於1624年起殖民台灣，到了1642年征服北台灣後，荷蘭人的目標轉為征服西部平原的原住民，以連通台灣南北的道路。荷蘭人從中國海盜得到情報，在中部馬芝遴地區（彰化縣福興鄉一帶與淡水鎮之間）有22個村社，其中大甲溪以南的18個村社是由一位叫柯大王（Quata Ong）的領袖所統轄。

1644年，荷蘭上尉Piter Boon率兵遠征北台灣未臣服的原住民，戰勝後南下打通陸路，因為遭遇拍瀑拉族的強烈反擊而未成功。翌年Piter Boon再度進攻，摧毀了13座反荷村落，Quata Ong只得接受范布鍊（Simon van Breen）牧師的協調。

1645年4月荷蘭人召開南部的地方會議，Quata Ong跟荷蘭東印度公司訂約，表示臣服，不過直到1662年荷蘭人離開臺灣為止，大肚王國都維持半獨立狀態。大肚王國不肯接受基督教，只讓歐洲人通過領土而不准他們定居，也無荷語的翻譯員。

明鄭時期: 大肚王國雖對荷印公司友善，但從未歸順明鄭王朝。1661年鄭成功領兵渡海，擊敗荷印公司軍隊，取得臺灣統治權。由於實施「兵農合一」政策，派遣鄭軍分赴各地屯墾，侵害到原住民族的活動空間，導致明鄭王朝和大肚王國數次武裝衝突。

事實上，鄭氏對原住民的剝削程度，較荷蘭人更加嚴苛激烈，驅使奴役、虐待刻薄的情況時有所聞，鎮壓「番變」的手段也十分殘酷，使原住民大為反感，引起原住民的反抗。

其中1670年大肚王國轄下的沙轆社起兵抵抗，遭明鄭將領劉國軒強力鎮壓，屠殺至僅剩六人，幾乎滅族。

在一六七○年的沙轆之役中，鄭軍部將劉國軒從南台灣到中部撫番，於大肚溪口附近上岸。當地的拍瀑拉族社番不肯就撫，於是劉國軒趁社番不備之際揮兵猛攻，社番被殺者眾，餘者紛紛逃往它處。鄰近之大肚與水裡社番目睹鄭軍之殘酷，遂逃之一空。黃叔璥〈番俗六考〉記載：「沙轆番原有數百人，為最盛；後為劉國軒殺戮殆盡，只餘六人，潛匿海口」。

清領時期: 1722年（康熙六十一年），出任巡臺御史的黃叔璥在他的《臺海使槎錄》一書中，有這樣的記載：「大肚山形，遠望如百雉高城，昔有番長名大眉。」雖然寥寥數語，卻說明17世紀的臺灣中部確實有一個「超部落」的王國。

1731年（雍正九年），清廷官吏對原住民指派勞役過多，引起原住民群起反抗，發生大甲西社番亂（大甲西社抗清事件），翌年被鎮壓下來，各族人陸續逃離原居地，遷往埔里（南投縣北部）一帶，大肚王國亦終告瓦解。

* 台灣第一個本土政權：大肚王國 by 郭正典

____________________________________________________________________________________________

大甲西社番亂

大甲西社抗清事件為台灣原住民平埔族歷史上最大的民眾起事事件。發生於台灣清領時期雍正年間的該事件，持續長達一年。事件過後不僅漢人與平埔各族群間傷亡慘重，也讓清廷於平埔各族境內加強駐兵，加強控制平埔族群。此「番亂」名稱，來自福建提督許良彬奏摺所稱；復以領導人為林武力，又被稱為「林武力之亂」。

事件經過

1731年（雍正九年）年末，原住民族道卡斯族位於大甲一帶的大甲西社，因清廷官吏指派勞役過多而群起反抗，發動武裝抗官行動；燒毀同知衙門，殺傷衙役兵丁，同知張弘章倉皇逃逸。事發之初，時任臺灣鎮總兵呂瑞麟正好北巡到北台灣，聞變趕回貓盂（在今苗栗），被原住民起事者圍困。隨後，呂某突圍入彰化縣治，並向臺灣府徵兵合攻，仍未平復。

1732年5月負責征討大甲西社「亂」事的福建分巡臺灣道倪象愷的劉姓表親為求立功，竟將大肚社（在今臺中縣大肚鄉）五名前來幫助官府運糧的「良番」(歸順清廷的台灣原住民)扣押，謊稱這五人是大甲西社的「作亂生番」(沒有歸順清廷的台灣原住民)。此事引起已歸順原住民的不滿，群湧彰化縣城理論抗議；縣令隨意敷衍了事，引起大肚社原住民大為不滿，於是聯合南大肚社、沙轆社（在今臺中縣沙鹿）、牛罵頭社（在今臺中縣清水）、樸子籬社（今臺中東勢），吞霄社（今苗栗通霄）、阿里史社（今臺中潭子）等十餘社的平埔族群原住民約兩千多人圍攻彰化縣治，焚燒附近數十里民房，漢族百姓驚荒奔逃。

事件擴大後，其他各社如蓬山社（今大甲）、貓羅社（今彰化縣芬園鄉）、岸里社（今臺中縣神岡）、水裡（今臺中龍井）、阿束社（今彰化市香山）等原住民也起而響應。至此大安溪到大甲溪之間，原屬於大肚王國領域內的山谷平原都陷入動盪之中。這是清領時期平埔族群武力反抗事件中規模最大的一次，當時彰化縣（今臺中縣、彰化縣）境內平埔族各社幾乎都參加了這一抗清行動。

派兵鎮壓

當時廣東總督郝玉麟派臺灣鎮總兵王郡親往督征，並先後從中國本土徵調官兵六千多名，以及錢糧、軍火器械，船載一百多艘來臺征討。9月初，清軍採「以夷制夷」之策，得岸里社部分原住民的協助，襲破阿束社。10月中旬清軍兵分七路，攻破水裡社、牛罵頭社及沙轆社。11月初清兵攻進小坪山反抗軍據點，獲牛千餘隻、馬八匹、車數百輛，焚毀糧食四百堆。最後吞霄社、大甲西社、貓盂社、雙嶚社、苑裡社、房裡社等抵抗失敗，各酋長先後率眾投降，事件才告結束。

事件後，清廷改大甲西社為「德化社」、牛罵頭社為「感恩社」、沙轆社為「遷善社」、貓盂社為「興隆社」，並且建了一個「鎮番亭」於彰化東郊的瞭望山（即八卦山），並改山名為「定軍山」。

結果

這場「亂」事過後，參與的「番社」幾乎被滅村，造成「番童少雁行，番婦半寡居」的情景。

____________________________________________________________________________________________

平埔族群

平埔族群母親和小孩

平埔族群是對居住在台灣平野地區的許多南島語系原住民族群的泛稱。這些族群往昔被日本人及清朝人蔑稱以「平埔番」、「熟番」，等名。至國民政府時代多已喪失族群意識，且不被官方認定為原住民族；後來台灣族群研究興起，這些平地原住民族群的歷史才開始受到主流社會的關注，學術界、文化界開始加以調查、研究，社會大眾也改以較中性的「平埔族群」一詞加以指稱，但是有部份的資料仍以平埔族稱之，因為「平埔族群」並非單一民族，事實上應該是「平埔族群」才正確。

「平埔」兩個字，就字面的意思而言，就是「平地」的意思；「族群」則是指稱某一特定的人群。就此而言，「平埔族群」是用來指稱「居住在平地的人群」的簡易稱呼。

400年前，早在中國大陸漢人移民前往台灣拓墾、定居之前，台灣西海岸的平原地帶，從北部的宜蘭、基隆一直到恆春，就已經有許多不同文化、不同語言、不同部落認同的人群在居住著。這些比漢族更早居住在台灣平原地帶的不同人群，由於和漢群的語言、文化都不相同，因此在早期的臺灣歷史文獻中常被稱為「番」。從「番」的字形、字意來看，「番」是「釆」與「田」所組成的，是用來指稱以某種方式耕作的人，是一種生活方式。但是，在漢文化為中心的眼光下，「番」就含有歧視的意味。

平埔番或平埔熟番字眼出現在志書中，主要是為了和生番與高山番區別。平埔熟番的稱呼雖然在18世紀中期以後就出現在清朝的文獻中，但主要還是在19世紀中期以後的文獻出現得比較多。例如，《噶瑪蘭廳志》（1851）就有「平埔番」一詞。簡單地說，18世紀下半葉在文獻中出現的「平埔番」、「平埔熟番」，是指居住在屏東平原、宜蘭平原、台東平地與恆春平野的土著族群。事實上，我們現在所謂的「平埔族群」隱含了兩個意涵：「平埔」與「熟番」。「平埔」一詞較流行於民間；而「熟番」則是較官方的用語。

分類

雖然自有人類以來，不同的人群之間就對彼此的關係有某種程度的「分類系統」。但是，人類開始以「族」或「民族」來區分人群則是相當晚近的事，特別是在100多年前殖民主義與帝國主義開始興盛的時候。台灣的所謂「族群分類」也正是在這樣的時代背景下產生的。台灣日治時期統治台灣的日本殖民帝國，基於統治的理由，對台灣的人群與土地進行全盤的調查與瞭解，同時也展開了台灣族群的分類工作(中央研究院平埔文化資訊網 nd, b)。

起初，日本學者認為居住在平原地區的原住民大多已經漢化，只是以「平埔族群」或「平埔番」一詞概括之，而將人群分類的重點放在「高山族」上。後來，日本學者對文化漸行消失的平地原住民有了較多的認識之後，才瞭解到所謂的「平埔族群」，實際上包含多個不同語言、不同文化的民族。然而，在過去90多年來，學者對平埔族的分類相當不一致，有的分為7族14支、也有分為8族、9族、10族、12族等(中央研究院平埔文化資訊網 nd, b)。

根據今日學術界的研究成果，所謂「平埔族」、「高山族」的分界，並不是天然的民族界線，而是在十七世紀以後的歷史過程中，因各族生活領域和漢化程度不同而產生的斷裂線。換句話說，所謂「平埔族群」彼此之間的文化差異，可能大於某「平埔族」與某「高山族」之間的差異——某些「平埔族群」和某些「高山族群」且可能本來是同一個族群。

日治時期學者的分類

有關平埔族群的分類，在日治時期以前，均缺乏有系統的分類。荷蘭時期僅記錄了先住民的社名，並依其分佈的地區，劃分成幾個區域群。清朝黃叔璥在《番俗六考》中，也是依照地理分佈而將原住民分為13個部落群。

直到日據時代，伊能嘉矩、粟野傳之丞的《臺灣番人事情》(1900)一書中才對平埔族群加以有系統的分類，其後伊能嘉矩又著《臺灣番政志》(1904)，將平埔族的分類加以修正，而分平埔族為：凱達格蘭族(Ketagalan)、噶瑪蘭族(Kavarawan)、道卡斯族(Taokas)、拍宰海族(Pazzehe)、拍暴拉族(Vupuran)、巴布薩族(Poavosa)、阿立昆族(Arikun)、羅亞族(Lloa)、西拉雅族(Siraiya)、以及馬卡道族(Makattao)等10族。

以伊能嘉矩的這個分類系統當作主要的參考架構，移川子之藏、小川尚義、馬淵東一等人也都提出過對平埔族群不同的分類方式(中央研究院平埔文化資訊網 nd, b)。其中主要的爭議有幾個：

(1). 阿立昆(Arikun)及羅亞(Lloa)這兩族到底應不應該被歸為同一族(後來的學者比較傾向於將這兩族歸為一族，稱之為洪雅(Hoanya))；

(2). 凱達格蘭(Ketagalan)是否是同質性的一個族群，還是應該再繼續做細分；

(3). 西拉雅族(Siraiya)和馬卡道族(Makattao)應該是不同族或者是同一族；

(4). 移川子之藏在伊能嘉矩的架構下新加入的邵(Sao)族，應該是平埔族還是高山族。

戰後學者的分類

近年來，學者對於平埔族群的分類，又有新的看法。日本語言學者土田滋在1985年的分類中(見Tsuchida 1985)，將平埔族群分為12族：噶瑪蘭(Kavalan)、馬賽（Basay）、凱達格蘭（Ketagalan）、龜崙(Kulon)、道卡斯（Taokas）、拍宰海（Pazeh）、拍瀑拉（Papora）、巴布薩（Babuza）、洪雅（Hoanya）、西拉雅（Siraya）、馬卡道族（Makattao）以及大武壟(Taivoan)。

台灣語言學者李壬癸則有不同的看法，在1996年〈台灣平埔族群的種類及其相互關係分類〉一文中，提出了7族14支的看法：邵族(Thao)、噶瑪蘭(Kavalan)、凱達格蘭（Ketagalan）【下分：巴賽（Basay）、雷朗（Luilang）、多囉美遠（Trobian）等三支】、巴布蘭（Baburan）【下分：道卡斯（Taokas）、巴布拉（Papora）、貓霧捒（Babuza）、費佛朗(Favoran)等四支】、巴則海（Pazeh）、洪雅（Hoanya）、西拉雅（Siraya）【下分西拉雅（Siraya）、馬卡道族（Makattao）以及四社熟番(Taivoan)等三支】。

主要族群

邵族(Thao)
噶瑪蘭族(Kavalan)
凱達格蘭族(Ketagalan)
雷朗族(Luilang)

主要分佈在台北縣、中和、三峽一帶，及桃園縣一些地區。以魚獵、種薯等方式維生，大至在大台北盆地西部、南部和桃園一帶的水陸地域活動。大約在清朝乾隆時期前後，被陸續前來墾拓的福建移民所沖散，族群現已絕跡，可能已和漢民族同化在一塊了。

道卡斯族(Taokas)
巴布拉族(Papora)
貓霧族(Babuza)
巴則海族(Pazeh)
洪雅族(Hoanya)
西拉雅族(Siraya)
龜崙族(Kulon)

源頭

據現代研究資料分析，平埔族群與臺灣原住民相同，文化來源均來自屬東南亞南島語系。該語系民族分佈地點於整個太平洋與印度洋一帶，最遠甚至可溯及距離台灣數千公里遠之復活島及馬達加斯加。根據地點分佈，台灣平埔族群是南島語系最北的分佈族群。俱信平埔族群早於新石器時代即發源或登陸台灣，是屬於海洋民族之一。

平埔族群的近況

由於歷經與漢族數百年來的交流，平埔族群的風俗習慣、語言逐漸凋零散佚而不可考據。目前在學者與平埔族群後裔的努力下，逐漸找回部分的習俗及語言。其中邵族、噶瑪蘭族已獲得中華民國政府的官方承認，成為臺灣原住民族之一。

TaiwanDNA.com

Origins and Diversity of the Taiwanese People

TaiwanDNA.com Homepage

中縣拍瀑拉族重現平埔祭儀 by 蔡智銘

* 台灣中部平埔族古文書數位典藏

* 誰是台灣第一英雄？ by 正義之聲

POPORA

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Classification of Austronesian Languages

台中沙鹿遷善社競走儀式用井

(Image from Digital Archives)

* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart

Higer AN Phylogeny Based on Innovations among Numerals

Kingdom of Middag

Kingdom of Middag, 1540-1732

Plains Aborigines

A Plains Tribe Aborigine child and woman

平埔族十大族簡表

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan - Red Cell Enzyme Systems by Feng Jin, et al.

* Immunoglobulin Allotypes among Taiwan Aborigines: Evidence of malarial selection could affect studies of population affinity by Moses S Schanfield, et al.

清水遺址出土二號頭骨正面觀

* 巴則海及貓霧拺平埔族人骨學分析

* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

Iron Age

巴布拉族

巴布拉族

聚落

大肚王國

* 台灣第一個本土政權：大肚王國 by 郭正典

大甲西社番亂

平埔族群

平埔族群母親和小孩

分類

日治時期學者的分類

戰後學者的分類

主要族群

源頭

平埔族群的近況

Map of Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes

TaiwanDNA.com

Origins and Diversity of the Taiwanese People

TaiwanDNA.com Homepage

中縣拍瀑拉族 重現平埔祭儀 by 蔡智銘

* 台灣中部平埔族古文書數位典藏

* 誰是台灣第一英雄？ by 正義之聲

POPORA

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

Classification of Austronesian Languages

台中沙鹿遷善社競走儀式用井

(Image from Digital Archives)

* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart

Higer AN Phylogeny Based on Innovations among Numerals

Kingdom of Middag

Kingdom of Middag, 1540-1732

Plains Aborigines

A Plains Tribe Aborigine child and woman

平埔族十大族簡表

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan - Red Cell Enzyme Systems by Feng Jin, et al.

* Immunoglobulin Allotypes among Taiwan Aborigines: Evidence of malarial selection could affect studies of population affinity by Moses S Schanfield, et al.

清水遺址出土二號頭骨正面觀

* 巴則海及貓霧拺平埔族人骨學分析

* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

Iron Age

巴布拉族

巴布拉族

聚落

大肚王國

* 台灣第一個本土政權：大肚王國 by 郭正典

大甲西社番亂

平埔族群

平埔族群母親和小孩

分類

日治時期學者的分類

戰後學者的分類

主要族群

源頭

平埔族群的近況

Map of Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes

中縣拍瀑拉族重現平埔祭儀 by 蔡智銘